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. 2023 Nov 28;20:87. doi: 10.1186/s12987-023-00489-2

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 4 — HFIRE stimulation, where a illustrates the distal end of the CETCS system with microneedles arborized from the primary cannula in convection-enhanced delivery CED catheters. b Schematic needle insertion in HFIRE induced BBB disruption and c post-contrast MRI images after gadolinium enhancement surrounding tumour area after treatment. Figures taken from Partridge et al. [119]. d MRI analysis of control brains in electroporation treatment with visible needle path (white arrow) obtained 30 min post treatment and e Histopathology of brain region with minimal bleeding along electrode insertion path. Figures taken from Sharabi et al. [61]. Immunofluorescent staining of transverse brain samples following intracranial HFIRE revealed a deceased in claudin-5 and ZO-1 reactivity 1 h post-treatment followed by gradual increase over time compared to control. Scale bar is 50 µm across all images. Image taken from Partridge et al. [118]