Table 3.

Studies on the therapeutic role of Vernonia amygdalina in diabetes and associated complications.

S/N	Reference	Parts utilized	Solvent for extraction	Dose	Bioactive compound	Experimental model/human	Treatment effect
1	Djeujo et al. [36]	Roots and leaves	Distilled water, ethanol, and Soxhlet	10–100 μM	Luteolin and vernodalol	In vitro	α-Glucosidase activity, antioxidation, advanced glycation end products (AGEs)
2	Patathananone et al. [37]	Leaves	Methanol, ethanol and acetone, isopropanol, ethyl acetate and hexane	10–100 μl	Flavonoids, phenols, coumarins, saponins, tannins, terpenoids, steroids, and cardiac glycosides	In vitro	Antioxidant activity, antityrosinase activity, and antiamylase activity
3	Medjiofack Djeujo et al. [38]	Roots and leaves	Distilled water, ethanol, Soxhlet	5-500 μg/ml	Catechin, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, luteolin, vernodalol	In vitro	α-Glucosidase activity, AGE formation, and oxygen radical absorbance capacity
4	Erukainure and Islam [39]	Leaves	Ethanol, distilled water, ethyl acetate	500 mg/kg	Not reported	Sprague Dawley rats	Antioxidative and antidiabetic
5	Okoduwa et al. [40]	Fresh leaves	Methanol	10 mg/kg b.w	11β,13-Dihydrovernolide	Albino Wistar rats	Hypoglycemic effect
6	Erukainure et al. [41]	Leaves	Distilled water	30, 60, 120, and 240 μg/ml	L-Serine, L-cysteine, L-proline, Cumidine, nicotinic acid, isoquinoline, 3-methyl-salicylic acid, and γ-octalactone	Sprague Dawley rats	Glucose uptake and neuroprotection
7	Erukainure et al. [42]	Leaves	Distilled water	15, 30, 60, 120, and 240 μg/ml	Acidic lipid, mucilage and pectin, lipids, polyphenols, and alkaloids	Sprague Dawley rats	α-Glucosidase activity, DPPH, FRAP, DNA fragmentation, glucose uptake, and absorption
8	Wu et al. [43]	Leaves	Ethanol	50, 100, and 150 mg/kg	Not reported	Kunming mice	Hypoglycemic effect, improved insulin resistance, suppression of gluconeogenesis
9	Aba and Udechukwu [44]	Leaves	Distilled water	200 mg/kg	Saponins, flavonoids, tannins, glycosides, alkaloids, terpenes	Albino Wistar rats	Hypoglycemic effect
10	Okon and Umoren [45]	Leaves	Distilled water	52 mg/kg	Flavonoids, terpenes, polyphenols, alkaloids, saponin, steroids, and cardiac glycosides	Albino Wistar rats	Hypoglycemic effect
11	Okoduwa et al. [46]	Leaves	Methanol	250 mg/kg b.w	Alkaloids, carbohydrates, glycosides, flavonoids, polyphenols, saponins. Steroids, tannins, and tritapene	Albino Wistar rats	Hypoglycemic, antilipidemic, pancreatic β-cell regeneration, restoration of biomarkers of liver and kidney function
12	Asante et al. [13]	Young and old leaves	Ethanol	10, 30, and 300 mg/kg b.w	Flavonoids, saponins, alkaloids, saponins, tannins, glycosides, terpenoids, anthraquinones, and reducing sugars	Sprague Dawley rats	Hypoglycemic, antilipidemic, and tissue regeneration
13	Okoduwa et al. [47]	Leaves	Methanol	250 mg/kg b.w.	Carbohydrates, glycosides, cardiac glycosides, saponins, steroids, triterpenes, tannins, flavonoids, alkaloid	Albino Wistar rats	Hypoglycemic effect
14	Atangwho et al. [48]	Leaves	Petroleum ether and chloroform	200 and 400 mg/kg	Not reported	Sprague Dawley rats	Suppression of gluconeogenesis
15	Atangwho et al. [49]	Leaves	Water, methanol, chloroform, petroleum	400 mg/kg	Fatty acids, vitamin E	Sprague Dawley rats	Hypoglycemic effect
16	Akinola et al. [50]	Leaves	Ethanol	400 mg/kg	Polyphenols	Albino Wistar rats	Antihyperglycemic effect
17	Atangwho et al. [51]	Leaves	Ethanol	400 mg/kg b.w.	Alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, reducing sugars, polyphenols, steroids, hydroxymethyl anthraquinones	Albino Wistar rats	Antihyperglycemic, pancreatic β-cell regeneration
18	Akah et al. [52]	Leaves	Methanol	80, 160, and 320 mg/kg	Flavonoids, saponins, carbohydrates, combined and free reducing sugars, tannins, sterols, and balsams	Albino Wistar rats	Hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic
19	Nwanjo [53]	Leaves	Distilled water	200 mg/kg	Alkaloids, carbohydrates, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, and glycosides	Albino Wistar rats	Hypolipidemic and antioxidant
20	Gyang et al. [54]	Leaves	Chloroform	750 mg/kg	Not reported	Albino Wistar rats	Hypoglycemic effect