Table 1.

Activation of immune cells in COPD patients.

Inflammatory Cells	Expression	Location	Downstream Targets	References
Neutrophils	+	COPD patients' bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid and sputum	CXCL8	[17]
Macrophages	+	COPD patients' sputum, BAL fluid, and lung parenchyma	cytokines (TNF-α), chemotactic factors [CXCL1, CXCL8, CCL2, LTB4] and ROS	[30]
Lymphocytes (CD8+ and CD4+)	+	COPD patients' lung parenchyma, bronchi, and bronchioles	IL-17A and IL-22	[31,32]
Mast Cells	+	human lung parenchyma	VEGF-A and FGF-2	[33,34]
Eosinophils	+	Stable COPD patients' airways and BAL fluid	VEGF-A, FGF-2, TNF-α, GM-CSF, nerve growth factor (NGF), and CXCL8	[35,36]
Basophils	+	COPD patient's lung tissue	VEGF-A and ANGPT1	[35,37]