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. 2023 Nov 1;55(11):2287–2299. doi: 10.1038/s12276-023-01105-x

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Tc subsets play diverse roles in different diseases. Tc1 cells are known for their cytotoxic activity against tumors and infected cells, while Tc2 cells have been implicated in the pathogenesis of allergic diseases and cancer. Tc17 cells have been studied in the context of skin inflammation and the tumor microenvironment, while Tc9 cells have been associated with certain autoimmune disorders and antitumor effects. The role of Tc22 cells has been reported in psoriatic skin and tumor tissue. Tfcs support humoral responses in autoimmunity and are also found in the tumor microenvironment. Additionally, regulatory cell subsets such as CD8⁺ Foxp3⁺ Tregs, Qa1-restricted CD8⁺ Tregs and human KIR⁺ CD8⁺ Tregs have been identified in graft-versus-host disease and autoimmune diseases, in which they presumably contribute to immune regulation.