TABLE 2.
Overview of cardiac patches based on natural biomaterials and fabricated by 3D printing/bioprinting.
| Technology | Materials | Cells | Functionalization strategy | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Inkjet | Alginate and gelatin | Primary feline adult cardiomyocytes and HL1 cardiac muscle cell line | - | Xu et al. (2009) |
| Alginate | Mouse fibroblasts (NIH3T3) | - | Christensen et al. (2015) | |
| Extrusion based | Heart-derived decellularized ECM | Human cardiac progenitor cells (hCPCs) | Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the MSC laden bioink to promote neovascularization | Jang et al. (2017) |
| Human turbinate tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells | ||||
| Non-mulberry silk fibroin | Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs)–in the bioink | Carbon nanotubes for electrical conductivity | Mehrotra et al. (2021) | |
| Polyethylene glycol di-methacrylate (PEGDMA) | Neonatal rat cardiomyocytes–seeding on printed structures | Interleukin-10 (IL-10)-loaded GelMA microspheres with immunomodulatory activity and calcium peroxide (oxygen concentration enhancement, cell viability up to 5 days in hypoxic environment) | ||
| Gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) | ||||
| Alginate/gelatin | Neonatal mouse cardiac cell spheroids or free (non-spheroid) human coronary artery endothelial cells with fibroblasts | - | Roche et al. (2021) | |
| Alginate | HUVECs | - | Delkash et al. (2021) | |
| Egg-white | ||||
| Decellularized pig omentum | Neonatal rat ventricular cardiac cells | Asulin et al. (2021) | ||
| Microbial transglutaminase (mTgase) crosslinked gelatin | Human MSCs | 3D printed line features (contact guidance) | Tijore et al. (2018) | |
| Cardiomyocytes | ||||
| Type I collagen | Reprogrammed human adipogenic mesenchymal stem cells to form purkinje cells | - | Tracy et al. (2020) | |
| Alginate, GelMA | HUVECs (in the bioink) | - | Zhang et al. (2016) | |
| Neonatal rat cardiomyocytes | ||||
| hiPSC-CMs | ||||
| Porcine heart decellularized ECM and medical grade COLTRIX (Type-1 atelo-collagen) | Neonatal rat cardiomyocytes | - | Das et al. (2019) | |
| Genetically engineered multi-domain proteins (ASP - leucine zipper derived and A35m - mussel foot protein derived) | - | Hydrogels loaded with recombinant human follistatin-like 1 (FSTL1) (known to improve cardiac function and survival in mouse and swine models) | Jiang et al. (2022) | |
| Alginate | Rat ventricular cardiomyocytes and Cardiac fibroblasts | Gold nanorods for improved electrical conductivity | Zhu et al. (2017) | |
| GelMA | ||||
| Fibrin-based composite hydrogel (fibrinogen, gelatin, aprotinin, glycerol, and hyaluronic acid) as bioink | Neonatal rat ventricular cardiomyocytes | - | Wang et al. (2018) | |
| Gelatin, glycerol, and hyaluronic acid as support (sacrificial) gel | ||||
| Decellularized ECM from heart, adipose and cartilage tissues | Human adipose-derived stem cells and human inferior turbinate-tissue derived mesenchymal stromal cells | - | Pati et al. (2014) | |
| Rat myoblast cells (L6, ATCC CRL-1458) | ||||
| Non-mulberry silk fibroin, PEGDMA, GelMA | Human induced pluripotent stem cell derived cardiac spheroids | - | Mehrotra et al. (2020) | |
| Alginate | HUVECs and hiPSC-CMs | - | Maiullari et al. (2018) | |
| Polyethylene glycol-Fibrinogen | ||||
| Alginate | Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells | - | Liu et al. (2021) | |
| Gelatin | ||||
| Furfuryl−gelatin and fibrinogen solutions | hiPSC-CMs | - | Anil Kumar et al. (2019) | |
| Human cardiomyocytes (AC16 cell lines) | ||||
| Methacrylated collagen (MeCol) | Human coronary artery endothelial cells | MeCol micropatterning, for topographical stimuli | Izadifar et al. (2018) | |
| Alginate | Carbon nanotubes incorporation, for conductivity | |||
| Hyaluronic acid/gelatin | Human cardiac-derived progenitor cells (hCMPCs) | - | Gaetani et al. (2015) | |
| Double bioink | hiPSC-CMs | - | Chikae et al. (2019) | |
| -Cells, Thrombin and hyaluronic acid | ||||
| -Fibrinogen and hyaluronic acid | ||||
| Decellularized cardiac ECM and GelMA | Human cardiac progenitor cells | - | Bejleri et al. (2018) | |
| FRESH | Alginate-based hydrogels (RGD modified alginate/Calcium Gluconate/Gelatin/Matrigel for the core; calcium cross-linked alginate/alginate sulfate/extracellular vesicles for the shell) | Human monocytic THP-1 cells | Extracellular vesicle delivery system | Bar et al. (2022) |
| GFP expressing human fibroblasts | RGD modified alginate for better cell-matrix interactions | |||
| Human or pig decellularized omenta (bioinks) | hiPSC-CMs | - | Noor et al. (2019) | |
| Endothelial cells laden gelatin hydrogel (sacrificial ink) | hiPSC derived endothelial cells | |||
| Alginate microparticles, xhantan gum supplemented growth medium (FRESH support medium) | Neonatal rat cardiac cells, HUVECs and lumen-supporting fibroblasts | |||
| Laser | Decellularized cardiac ECM | hiPSC-CMs, smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells | - | Gao et al. (2017) |
| UV-based | GelMA/PEGDA | hiPSC-CMs | 4D morphing of the scaffolds driven by light-induced graded pattern of stress (solvent-activated relaxation: swelling-induced stretching and dehydration-induced bending) | Cui et al. (2020) |
| Human mesenchymal stem cells | ||||
| Human endothelial cells | ||||
| GelMA or hyaluronic acid glycidyl methacrylate and PEGDA | Neonatal mouse ventricular cardiomyocytes | Micropatterning of the constructs for topographical stimuli | Liu et al. (2020) | |
| Soybean oil epoxidized acrylate | Human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells | Micropatterning for topographical stimuli | Miao et al. (2018) | |
| 4D shape changing with immersion in ethanol |