A summary of the synthetic parameters, composition, size distribution, and QY of animal/human biomass-derived CDsa.
| Source | Synthetic method | Elemental composition (C, H, O, N, others) | Size distribution (nm)/average size or maximum population (nm) | QY (%) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Animal biomass-derived CDs | |||||
| Egg white/yolk | Plasma-induced pyrolysis | [56.75, 6.03, 24.10, 13.12]b/[62.42, 8.74, 23.58, 5.26]b | 3.39/2.15 | 6.0/8.0 | 126 |
| Egg shell membrane | P (400 °C, 2 h); MW (5 min) | [13.78, —, 56.86, 1.60, 27.75 (Na)]c | 2.0–12.0/5.0 | 14.0 | 127 |
| Egg shell membrane | P (300 °C, 4 h, air) | [72.76, —, 10.58, 15.62, 1.04 (S)]c | 1.0–5.0/3.35 ± 0.5 | 8.0 | 128 |
| Egg white | HT (220 °C, 48 h) | [46.40, 9.15, 30.39, 13.94, 0.12 (S)]b | 1.4–3.4/2.1 | 43, 61e | 129 |
| Egg white (albumin) | AH (1 M NaOH) | [C, O, N, S]c | —/3.2 ± 1.1 | 16.8 | 130 |
| MW (700 W, 5 min) | ′′ | —/13.4 ± 8.5 | 6.6 | ||
| U (180 W, 5 h) | ′′ | —/4.1 ± 2.8 | 2.3 | ||
| Egg white | TD (200 °C, 4 h, air) | [C, O, N]c | —/3.3 ± 0.4 | 43.0 | 131 |
| Egg white | MW (750 W, 25 min) | [46.66, —, 36.79, 15.91, 0.65 (S)]c | 1.5–4.5/2.4 ± 0.6 | — | 132 |
| Egg white | MW (1100 W, 3 min) | [56.68, 4.57, 28.13, 9.80, 0.82 (S)]b | —/2.98 ± 1.57 | 7.93 | 133 |
| Pigeon egg white | P (300 °C, 3 h, air) | [68.83, —, 14.0, 9.44, 1.10 (S), 6.63 (Ot.)]c | 2.2–4.2/3.3 ± 0.5 | 17.48 | 134 |
| Pigeon egg yolk | ′′ | [78.51, —, 12.10, 5.83, 0.23 (S), 3.07 (Ot.)]c | 2.2–4.2/3.2 ± 0.5 | 16.34 | |
| Egg yolk oil | TD (260 °C, 1 h); D | [64.75, —, 10.16, 25.10 (Fe)]d | 1.0–17.0/<10.0 | 5.01 | 135 |
| Egg yolk | P (300 °C, 3 h, N2); HT (300 °C, 12 h) | [58.76, —, 39.65, 1.59]c | —/<10.0 | 35.0 | 136 |
| Egg yolk | P (220 °C, 24 h, air) | [57.80, —, 29.20, 11.20]c | 1.0–6.0/2.04 | — | 137 |
| Bombyx mori silk | HT (190 °C, 3 h) | [—, —, —, 10.45]c | 4.0–7.0/5.0 | 13.9 | 138 |
| Cocoon silk + H2O2 | HT (260 °C, 50 min) | [56.34, 5.63, 25.21, 12.82]b | 3.3–10.3/7.42 | 24.0 | 139 |
| [53.81, —, 27.75, 18.43]c | |||||
| Silkworm chrysalis | MW-HT (210 °C, 45 min) | [71.32, —, 22.96, 5.72]c | 13.0–26.0/19.0 | 46.0 | 140 |
| Bombyx mori silk + CA | HT (200 °C, 3.5 h) | [C, O, N]c | 4.0–6.0/5.6 | 61.1 | 141 |
| Spider silk | HT (180 °C, 10 h) | [41.38, 8.65, 33.67, 16.30]b | 1.5–5.5/3.65 | 21.5e | 142 |
| Silk fibroin | MW-HT (200 °C, 20 min) | [60.58, —, 21.72, 17.70]c | —/6.1 ± 0.7 | 15.0 | 143 |
| Silk fibroin | HT (220 °C, 12 h) | [59.25, 4.86, 22.68, 13.21]b | —/7.5 | 38.0 | 144 |
| Silk sericin | MW (800 W, 2.5 min) | [60.11, —, 35.78, 4.11]c | 2.0–7.0/4.0 | 3.60 | 145 |
| Silk sericin | P (150 °C, 2 h, air) | [64.28, —, 21.10, 14.62]c | 4.0–6.5/5.3 ± 0.5 | 67.0 | 146 |
| Silk fibroin + LMWC | P (230 °C, 3 h, N2) | — | 2.0–4.5/3.0 ± 1.5 | 66.0 | 147 |
| Barbeque beef | TA (5 h, Ar) | — | — | 40.0 | 148 |
| RF (2.5 M HNO3); GC | |||||
| Hamburger | R (220 °C, 30 min); EE & D | [68.6, —, 17.34, 13.38, 0.56 (S), 0.12 (P)]c | 2.0–10.0/5.1 ± 4.9 | 23.25 | 149 |
| Pike eel fish | R (280 °C, 30 min); EE & D | [66.58, —, 17.50, 15.91]c | 1.5–3.5/2.75 | 68.7 | 150 |
| Pike eel fish | R (300 °C, 30 min); EE & D | [68.28, —, 15.33, 16.39]c | 1.75–4.25/2.75 | 80.16 | 151 |
| Lamb | B (250 °C, 30 min); EE & D | [78.31, —, 19.70, 1.77]c | 0.8–3.8/2.0 | 10.0 | 152 |
| Lamb | B (350 °C, 30 min); EE & D | [74.72, —, 17.11, 7.12]c | 0.6–2.4/1.69 | 45.0 | 153 |
| Lamb | B (280 °C, 45 min); EE & D | [58.26, —, 27.82, 9.61, 4.31 (S)]c | 1.2–3.7/2.6 | 13.97 | 154 |
| Duck | G (170 °C, 60 min); EE & GC | [70.48, —, 22.17, 6.25, 1.11 (S)]c | 0.7–2.3/1.3 | 4.4 | 155 |
| Duck | R (300 °C, 30 min); EE & D | [64.67, —, 22.12, 12.73]c | 1.1–3.0/1.95 ± 0.41 | 38.05e | 156 |
| Chicken breast | R (230 °C, 30 min); EE & D | [69.87, —, 19.81, 9.91]c | 0.6–2.8/1.7 ± 0.4 | 10.8 | 157 |
| Chicken | R (300 °C, 30 min); EE & D | [67.61, —, 16.40, 15.36]c | 0.5–3.5/2.1 ± 0.6 | 17.46 | 158 |
| Chicken breast | R (200 °C & 300 °C, 30 min); EE & D | [71.69, —, 18.84, 9.07]c & [67.15, —, 18.8, 13.29]c | 1.0–4.5/2.8 & 0.3– 2.1/1.2 | — | 159 |
| Chicken | R (250 °C, 30 min); EE & D | [75.70, —, —, 7.97]c | 2.0–6.0/4.7 | 12.84 | 160 |
| Mackerel fish | R (230 °C, 40 min); EE & D | [52.70, —, 22.30, 24.10]c | 0.9–3.5/2.2 | 12.0 | 161 |
| Mackerel fish | G (230 °C, 30 min); EE & GC | — | 1.0–4.0/2.94 ± 0.03 | — | 162 |
| Salmon fish | R (200 °C, 50 min); EE & HPLC | — | 1.0–4.0/2.73 ± 0.48 | — | 163 |
| Pork | R (280 °C, 30 min); EE & D | [C, O, N]c | 3.5–8.5/5.93 | 17.11 | 164 |
| Beef | R (280 °C, 30 min); EE & HPLC | [68.68, —, 15.98, 10.60]c | 1.0–5.0/2.32 ± 0.71 | — | 165 |
| Honey | HT (100 °C, 2 h) | [44.24, —, 45.95, 9.81]c | —/2.0 | 19.8 | 166 |
| Rapeseed bee pollen | HT (180 °C, 48 h) | [52.30, 6.67, 32.52, 7.10]b | 0.75–2.25/1.7 | 12.8 | 167 |
| Camellia bee pollen | HT (180 °C, 24 h) | [44.69, 6.44, 40.82, 6.67]b | 0.8–1.5/1.2 | 8.9 | |
| Lotus bee pollen | ′′ | [41.30, 5.91, 46.70, 4.28]b | 0.75–1.5/1.1 | 6.1 | |
| Bee pollen | HT (200 °C, 24 h) | [C, O, N]c | 1.5–2.3/2.01 | 7.7 | 168 |
| Rapeseed bee pollen | HT (200 °C, 24 h) | [67.30, —, 25.10, 7.60]c | 2.3–12.3/5.2 | 7.7 | 169 |
| Honey | D (48 h) | [C, O]c | 2.3–5.4/3.2 ± 1.5 | 1.6 | 170 |
| NaBH4 reduction | 4.6 | ||||
| Honey + Garlic extract + NH3 | HT (200 °C, 6 h) | [C, O, N, S]c | 4.0–13.0/8.29 | 4.19 | 171 |
| Bee pollen (water) | HT (180 °C, 24 h) | [81.87, —, 13.78, 4.34]c | 1.0–5.0/2.64 | 2.15e | 172 |
| Bee pollen (ethanol) | ′′ | [67.85, —, 19.64, 12.51]c | 0.25–4.5/1.59 | 4.80e | |
| Shrimp egg | P (180 °C, 25 min) | [C, O, N]c | 0.5–6.0/3.25 | 18.5 | 173 |
| Prawn shell | RF (80 °C, 2 h); HT (200 °C, 8 h) | [C, O, N]d | 2.0–8.0/4.0 | 9.0 | 174 |
| Prawn shell | HT (180 °C, 12 h) | [68.50, —, 27.90, 3.60]c | 1.0–5.0/3.0 | — | 175 |
| Prawn shell + urea | HT (150 °C, 1 h) | — | 7.0–15.0/— | 5.84 | 176 |
| Dried shrimp | HT (170 °C, 12 h) | [21.24, —, 48.65, 23.57, 6.22 (S), 0.32 (P)]d | 1.0–13.0/6.0 | 54.0 | 177 |
| Crab shell + GdCl3 | MW (220 °C, 10 min) | [C, O, N, Gd]c | —/4.0 ± 0.7 | 19.84 | 178 |
| Crab shell | U (20 kHz, 1 h) | [C, O, N]c | —/8.0 | 14.5 | 179 |
| Crab shell | P (210 °C, 20 min) | [C, O, N]c | 3.0–9.0/— | 14.5 | 180 |
| Crab shell | HT (180 °C, 12 h) | — | —/10.0 | — | 181 |
| Shrimp shell | HT (180 °C, 15 h) | [C, O, N (14.40)]c | 1.5–5.5/— | — | 182 |
| Shrimp shell | P (230 °C, 2 h, N2) | [C, O, N, S, P]c | 3.0–5.0/— | 20.0 | 183 |
| Shrimp shell | HT (180 °C, 12 h) | [C, O, N]c | 8.0–10.0/— | 27.14 | 184 |
| Crayfish shell | HT (200 °C, 8 h) | [77.19, —, 13.86, 8.59, 0.36 (S)]c | 0.3–4.8/2.38 ± 0.14 | 50.2e | 185 |
| Crayfish shell | HT (200 °C, 6 h) | [66.82, —, 20.01, 12.70, 0.47 (S)]c | 3.0–5.5/4.0 | 18.57 | 186 |
| Crayfish shell | HT (180 °C, 8 h) | [63.0, —, 30.0, 7.0]c | 2.0–5.5/3.8 | 10.68 | 187 |
| Mussel seafood | HT (180 °C, 8 h) | [62.15, —, 25.21, 10.43]c | 0.6–2.0/1.30 ± 0.25 | 15.2 | 188 |
| Milk | HT (180 °C, 2 h) | [C, O, N]c | 2.0–4.0/3.0 | 12.0 | 189 |
| Milk | HT (180 °C, 8 h) | [62.50, 8.38, 24.45, 3.92, 0.75 (S)]b | 4.6–5.3/5.0 ± 0.27 | 9.68 | 190 |
| Milk + l-cysteine | ′′ | [46.83, 8.15, 29.37, 8.22, 7.43 (S)]b | 3.78–3.98/4.0 ± 0.07 | 10.38 | |
| Milk + urea | ′′ | [33.70, 7.14, 37.28, 20.88, 1.0 (S)]b | 3.15–3.35/3.0 ± 0.07 | 15.39 | |
| Cow milk | HT (180 °C, 12 h) | [92.15, —, 4.18, 3.66]c | 2.0–5.0/— | 9.6 | 191 |
| Cow milk | HT (180 °C, 12 h) | — | 1.0–5.0/— | — | 192 |
| Milk | MW (175 °C, 25 min) | [50.77, 6.47, 32.38, 10.38]b | 1.5–3.0/2.3 ± 0.4 | 16.0 | 193 |
| Milk | MW (1250 W, 2 min) | [73.30, —, 17.30, 9.30, 0.10 (P)]c | 1.0–7.0/— | — | 194 |
| Milk | HT (180 °C, 4 h) | [C, O, N, P]c | —/10.0 | 10.0 | 195 |
| Milk powder + FeCl3 | HT (180 °C, 6 h) | [60.28, —, 32.76, 6.05, 0.91 (Fe)]c | 2.0–4.5/2.9 | 8.73 | 196 |
| Cow milk | HT (180 °C, 8 h) | — | 1.0–3.0/2.0 | — | 197 |
| Cow milk | HT (180 °C, 2 h) | [67.36, —, 22.73, 9.91]c | 4.5–11.5/7.0 | 38.0 | 198 |
| Cow milk | HT (180 °C, 4 h) | [61.12, —, 31.49, 6.06]c | 1.0–2.0/1.6 ± 0.4 | 59.47 | 199 |
| Milk powder + methionine | HT (220 °C, 3 h) | [C, O, N, S]c | —/3.4 | 32.7 | 200 |
| Pasteurized milk | HT (170 °C, 12 h) | — | 1.75–4.25/2.5 ± 1.0 | 5.7 | 201 |
| Expired milk | SBCW (180 °C, 1.2 MPa, 2 h) | [70.11, —, 24.12, 5.77]c | 1.1–2.7/2.0 | 8.64 | 202 |
| Denatured milk | HT (120 °C, 3 h) | — | 1.0–5.0/2.0 | — | 203 |
| Denatured sour milk | HT (160 °C, 3 h) | [76.16, —, 17.52, 6.32]c | 2.0–4.0/— | 13.0 | 204 |
| Goose feather | MW-HT (180 °C, 40 min) | [43.50, 5.57, 34.70, 14.40, 1.83 (S)]b | 19.0–23.0/21.5 | 17.1 | 205 |
| [48.40, —, 33.30, 16.30, 1.90 (S)]c | |||||
| Pigeon feather | P (300 °C, 3 h, air) | [74.78, —, 12.76, 11.30, 1.16 (S)]c | 2.8–4.3/3.8 ± 0.5 | 24.87 | 134 |
| Chicken feather | HT (180 °C, 18 h) | [62.90, —, 35.80, 1.30]d | —/35.0 | — | 206 |
| Carbonized hen feather + Zn salt | P (350 °C, 3.5 h, air); MW (900 W, 6 min) | [66.13, —, 26.16, 5.33, 2.37 (Zn)]c | 2.0–5.5/4.09 | 10.34 | 207 |
| Carbonized hen feather + Mg salt | ′′ | [53.0, —, 34.0, 9.0, 4.0 (Mg)]c | 1.5–5.5/3.4 | 9.23 | |
| Pig skin | HT (250 °C, 2 h) | [19.31 : 6.02 : 1.0 (C : O : N atomic ratio)]c | 3.5–7.0/5.58 ± 0.21 | 24.1 | 208 |
| Pig skin | P (300 °C, 2 h, N2); MW (400 W, 4 min) | [82.93, —, 13.52, 2.43, 1.12 (Ot.)]c | 3.0–9.0/5.78 | 51.35 | 209 |
| Pork | HT (200 °C, 10 h) | [C, O, N]c | 2.1–4.9/3.5 | 17.3 | 210 |
| Pig skin collagen | HT (240 °C, 3 h) | [61.85, —, 21.75, 15.66]c | 0.8–1.8/1.25 ± 0.21 | 15.0 | 211 |
| Pork rib bone | P (700 °C, 5 h); AC; HT (200 °C, 10 h) | [C, O, N, S, 5.35 (Ca)]c | —/4.2 ± 1.2 | — | 212 |
| Pork liver | HT (180 °C, 5 h) | [64.06, —, 21.05, 14.88]c | 1.3–4.5/3.2 | 11.74 | 213 |
| Chicken drumstick | HT (190 °C, 5 h) | [C, O, N]c | 2.0–9.0/5.0 | 32.86 | 214 |
| Bovine bone | P (700 °C, 5 h); AC; HT (200 °C, 10 h) | [23.81, —, 53.28, 6.29, 1.54 (S), 15.09 (Ca)]c | —/6.6 | 8.4 | 215 |
| Pork bone | ′′ | [28.59, —, 49.08, 7.19, 1.18 (S), 13.96 (Ca)]c | —/6.7 | 7.3 | |
| Sheep bone | ′′ | [27.35, —, 51.57, 4.65, 1.73 (S), 14.70 (Ca)]c | —/9.5 | 8.0 | |
| GGEC | HT (240 °C, 8 h) | [64.86, —, 27.90, 7.24]c | 0.98–5.6/2.46 | 19.45 | 216 |
| Chicken cartilage | HT (200 °C, 8 h) | [C, O, N]c | 3.5–11.5/7.6 | 10.3e | 217 |
| Chicken bone | HT (180 °C, 4 h) | [75.34, —, 19.49, —]c | 1.8–4.6/3.2 ± 0.2 | — | 218 |
| Cow manure | P (300 °C, 3 h, air); RF (5 M HNO3, 72 h); AP | — | 2.3–6.8/4.8 | 65 | 219 |
| Cow manure | P (300 °C, 3 h, air); RF (5 M HNO3, 72 h); AP & 4-FPBA modification | [48.0, —, 39.10, 4.11, 3.45 (S), 5.42 (B)]c | 2.0–6.0/4.2 ± 0.032 | — | 220 |
| Pigeon manure | P (300 °C, 3 h, air) | [41.96, —, 29.71, 12.17, 1.26 (S), 14.9 (Ot.)]c | 3.2–5.2/4.2 ± 0.5 | 33.5 | 134 |
| Pigeon manure | HT (150 °C, 6 h) | [50.55, —, 37.81, 11.64]c | 12.0–20.0/15.65 | 25.92 | 221 |
| Fish scale (grass carp) | HT (200 °C, 24 h) | [60.35, —, 25.05, 14.60]c | 1.0–4.0/— | 17.08 | 222 |
| Fish scale (grass carp) | HT (200 °C, 20 h) | [65.20, —, 21.90, 12.90]c | 4.0–9.0/— | 9.0 | 223 |
| Fish scale (grass carp) | MW-HT (200 °C, 2 h) | [C, O, N, S]c | 1.4–3.4/2.6 ± 0.8 | 19.92 | 224 |
| Fish scale (crucian carp) | HT (200 °C, 20 h) | [70.0, —, 16.0, 14.0]c | 5.0–10.0/— | 6.9 | 225 |
| Fish scale (Lethrinus lentjan) | HT (280 °C, 3 h) | — | 3.0–15.0/— | — | 226 |
| Fish scale (Ctenopharyngodon idella) | Water extraction, 1 h | [64.87, —, 24.16, 4.54, 1.33 (S), 1.16 (P), 1.64 (Ca)]c | 30.0–130.0/61.0 ± 3.6; 2.5–7.5/4.23 ± 0.13 | 15.6 | 227 |
| Fish scale (Dicentrarchus labrax) | HT (200 °C, 24 h) | [66.0, —, 26.0, 8.0]c | —/10.0 (AFM) | 6.0 | 228 |
| Fish scale (Dicentrarchus labrax) | HT (200 °C, 24 h) | — | —/10.0 | — | 229 |
| Fish scale (Labeo rohita) | HT (180 °C, 7 h) | — | 4.0–5.0/— | — | 230 |
| Fish scale (silver carp) | HT (200 °C, 4 h) | [65.80, —, 21.10, 13.10]c | 1.7–6.5/4.02 ± 0.89 | 6.04 | 231 |
| MW (400 W, 1.5 min) | [59.40, —, 24.10, 16.50]c | 2.4–7.2/4.23 ± 1.03 | 5.10 | ||
| Shark cartilage (chondroitin sulphate) | HT (240 °C, 3 h) | [C, O, S, Na]d | 19.6–60.0/50.0 | 20.46 | 232 |
| Carp roe | HT (200 °C, 12 h) | [66.0, —, 20.02, 13.98]c | 6.04–9.42/7.60 | 13.4e | 233 |
| Fish scale collagen peptides | HT (190 °C, 2 h) | [65.10, —, 21.50, 13.40]c | 1.15–3.55/2.27 ± 0.48 | 9.29 | 234 |
| MW (400 W, 3 min) | [62.50, —, 21.10, 16.40]c | 5.75–9.75/7.58 ± 0.88 | 4.86 | ||
| Sheep wool | P (300 °C, 2 h); MW (700 W, 2 min) | [4.74 : 1.72 : 1.0 (C : O : N atomic ratio)]c | 2.7–9.3/6.05 ± 1.67 | 22.5 | 235 |
| Sheep wool | MW-HT (200 °C, 1 h) | [C, O, N, S]c | 1.5–4.5/2.8 | 16.3e | 236 |
| Sheep wool | HT (240 °C, 6 h) | [62.54, —, 23.05, 13.66, 0.75 (S)]c | 4.0–8.0/5.9 | 25.6 | 237 |
| Pig hair | ′′ | — | — | 20.1 | |
| Wool keratin | HT (200 °C, 10 h) | [C, O, 14.05 (N), S]c | 2.0–6.0/— | 8.0e | 238 |
| Human biomass-derived CDs | |||||
| Hair fiber | AC (40 °C, 24 h) | [61.22, —, 31.21, 5.43, 2.14 (S)]c | 4.0–10.0/7.5 | 11.1 | 239 |
| AC (100 °C, 24 h) | [59.73, —, 30.87, 5.37, 4.03 (S)]c | 2.0–7.0/4.2 | 4.02 | ||
| AC (140 °C, 24 h) | [60.56, —, 28.72, 5.64, 5.08 (S)]c | 2.0–5.0/3.1 | 5.38 | ||
| Hair | P (300 °C, 2 h, N2) | [74.12, 6.46, 11.59, —]b | —/2.3 | 17.3 | 240 |
| Hair | AT (200 °C, 24 h) | [C, O, N]c | 2.0–8.0/4.56 | 10.75 | 241 |
| Hair | P (300 °C, 2 h, N2); MW (400 W, 4 min) | [74.66, —, 14.75, 9.66, 0.93 (Ot.)]c | 2.0–7.0/3.57 | 86.06 | 209 |
| Hair | AT (180 °C, 24 h) | [76.60, —, 13.80, 8.91]c | 7.0–13.0/11.0 | 38.0 | 242 |
| MW (1100 W, 5 min) | [84.98, —, 13.81, 1.21]c | 65.0–90.0/78.0 | 17.0 | ||
| Hair | P (300 °C, 1 h, air) | [91.72, —, 3.22, 5.06]c | 1.0–2.6/1.76 | 38.0 | 243 |
| Urine (unmodified diet) | TD (200 °C, 12 h) | — | 10.0–40.0/20.6 ± 8.4 | 5.3 | 244 |
| Urine (vitamin C supplemented) | ′′ | ′′ | 2.0–28.0/11.4 ± 6.6 | 4.3 | |
| Urine (asparagus rich diet) | ′′ | ′′ | 10.0–70.0/38.8 ± 20.6 | 2.7 | |
| Urine + citron juice | HT (180 °C, 7 h) | [45.12, —, 38.30, 16.58]d | 2.5–5.5/4.0 | 34.5e | 245 |
| Urine | CN & GC | [67.80, —, 27.57, 3.70, 0.65 (S), 0.28 (Fe)]c | 1.0–5.0/2.5 | 4.8 | 246 |
| HT (200 °C, 8 h), GC | [64.29, —, 27.20, 5.48, 2.79 (S), 0.23 (Fe)]c | 2.0–9.0/5.5 | 17.8 | ||
| Fingernail + H2SO4 | MW (400 W, 2 min) | [57.80, —, 34.80, 5.90, 1.50 (S)]c | 1.8–3.0/2.2 | 42.8 | 247 |
| Fingernail | P (200 °C, 3 h, air) | [55.80, —, 23.50, 19.20, 1.50 (S)]c | 2.0–4.5/3.5 | 81.4 | 248 |
| Fingernail | HT (200 °C, 3 h) | — | 1.96–4.15/3.1 | — | 249 |
a
P: pyrolysis, AH: alkaline hydrolysis, U: ultrasonication, D: dialysis, TA: thermal annealing, RF: reflux, GC: gel column, EE: ethanol extraction, HPLC: high-pressure liquid chromatography, SBCW: subcritical water treatment, AC: acid carbonization, AP: amine passivation, CN: condensation, Ot.: other elements, and AFM: atomic force microscopy.
b
From elemental analysis.
c
From XPS analysis.
d
From TEM/SEM EDX analysis.
e
Absolute quantum yield.