TABLE 1.
Overview of the additively manufactured biosensors.
| Working mechanism | 3DP method | Printing materials | Sensitivity or gauge factor (GF) | Durability | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Resistive | FDM | Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) filament | GF 10 | over ∼12 months | Davoodi et al. (2020) |
| DIW | carbon black (CB)/polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) composites | 0.0048 kPa-1, GF 4.8 | stable over 500 cycles | Zhu et al. (2022a) | |
| DLP | Hydrolysable scaffold (sacrificial mold) | 0.111kPa-1 | 100 compression cycles (60% strain) | Peng et al. (2021) | |
| DIW | TPU, PDMS, Ecoflex, PI, TPU/CB/NaCl, TPU/Ag | 5.54 kPa-1, GF 13.3 | 10,000 loading-unloading cycles | Wang et al. (2019) | |
| FDM | TPU | 2.68MPa-1 | 1,000 loading cycles | Kim et al. (2023) | |
| DIW | Carbon Black/Ecoflex, Nano Silica/Ecoflex, Nano Silica/E650 ink | GF 13.4 | 500 cycles (10% strain) | Wang et al. (2021) | |
| SLA | The flexible photosensitive resin | 419.622kPa-1 | 1,000 cycles (10 kPa pressure) | Xia et al. (2021) | |
| DIW | Conductive silver nanoparticle (AgNP) | 0.48kPa-1 | 1,000 cycles (1.5 kPa pressure) | Lo et al. (2020) | |
| DIW | graphene/PDMS | GF 448 | 100 compression cycles (10% strain) | Huang et al. (2019) | |
| AJP | AgNPs | GF 9–10 | N/A | Agarwala et al. (2018) | |
| FDM | TPE, TPU | GF 180 | 3 days | Guo et al. (2017) | |
| FDM | TPU filament, CNT/TPU filament | N/A | 1,000 bending | Kim et al. (2017b) | |
| DLP | NaCl doped AG | GF 17 | 500 continuous cycles | Su et al. (2020) | |
| hybrid DLP | UV-curable multiwalled carbon nanotubes/elastomer (MWCNT/EA) composite | 15.04MPa-1 | 6,000 cycles (5% strain) | Xiao et al. (2023) | |
| Capacitive | DLP | ionic conductive hydrogel, water-dilutable polyurethane acrylate (WPUA) | 0.25–0.61kPa-1 | 10,000 pressure cycles | Yin et al. (2019) |
| DIW | PDMA-C18 hydrogel | 0.45kPa-1 | 10 dynamic thermal sensing | Lei et al. (2017) | |
| DLP | MA/ChCl-AAm/ChCl type PDES precursor solution | 8.92kPa-1 | 500 cycles (160 kPa pressure) | Wu et al. (2022) | |
| DLP | mixture of photocurable resin and MWCNTs | GF 38 | 10 cycles (2.5% strain) | Mu et al. (2017) | |
| FDM | ABS | N/A | N/A | Huang et al. (2017) | |
| AJP | AgNP ink | N/A | N/A | Rahman et al. (2016) | |
| FDM | carbon black thermoplastic polyurethane (PI–ETPU), thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) | 3.54%–8.67% | N/A | Loh et al. (2021) | |
| FDM | Commercial filament | 0.583kPa-1 | 200 loading cycles (50 kPa pressure) | Zhao et al. (2023) | |
| DIW | mesoporous PDMS | 0.0121–44.5kPa-1 | N/A | Yang et al. (2021b) | |
| Piezoelectric | DLP | micro Pb [(Mg1/3Nb2/3)0.1Zr0.45Ti0.45]O3 (PMN–PZT) ceramic–polymer composites with a silane coupling agent and dispersant |
N/A | N/A | Chang et al. (2023) |
| SLA | pristine BNNT and surface modified BNNT with photocurable resin | 120 mV/(kPa?wt%) | N/A | Zhang et al. (2020) | |
| MIP-SL | BaTiO3 powder mixed with photocurable resin | N/A | N/A | Zeng et al. (2020) | |
| SLA | barium titanate nanoparticles into photoliable polymer solutions | N/A | N/A | Kim et al. (2014) | |
| SLA | surface functionalized PZT nanoparticle and photosensitive monomer | N/A | N/A | Cui et al. (2019) | |
| SEA-3DP | mixture of DMF, PVDF, DMSO | N/A | N/A | Bodkhe et al. (2018) | |
| FDM | PVDF filament | N/A | N/A | Kim et al. (2017a) | |
| DIW | PVDF nano micro fibers | N/A | N/A | Fuh et al. (2017) | |
| FDM | PVDF filament, Commercial conductive filament | N/A | N/A | Košir and Slavič (2022) |