TABLE 5.
Functions of geranylgeraniol (GG) in muscles and muscle cells.
| Studies | Effects of GG |
|---|---|
| Sanvee et al. (2021a) | GG prevented toxicity (caused by statin) in myoblasts (by 400%) and myotubes (by 100%) |
| GG improved energy production (decreased by statin) in myoblasts (by 50%) and myotubes (by 30%) | |
| Statin inhibited cellular respiration and increased superoxide production; GG completely prevented statin-associated membrane toxicity | |
| Sanvee et al. (2021b) | Isoprenoid replenishment (especially by GG) prevented the cytotoxicity associated with statin |
| GG prevented cytotoxicity presented by toxic effects of statin in skeletal muscle cells | |
| GG restored phosphorylation and prevented ATP depletion completely of muscle cells caused by statin | |
| Statin impaired mitochondrial respiration and caused reactive oxygen species (ROS) production; GG prevented ROS completely, likely interfering with ROS generation | |
| Ownby and Hohl (2002) | Statin led to visible muscle and muscle cell damage; GG reversed and restored myotube and myofiber morphology, inhibition of muscle atrophy via atrogin-1 reduction |
| Cao et al. (2009) | |
| Marcuzzi et al. (2016) | |
| Irwin et al. (2020) | Statin reduced force production of hind legs; GG completely abrogated this effect |
| Miyawaki et al. (2020) | GG increased shinbone muscle force, reversed skeletal muscle fatigue and improved cardiac muscle contraction/relaxation |