Table 1.
Descriptive Statistics of Variables Used in the Analysis
| Variable | Mean | (SD) | Minimum | Maximum |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dependent Variables | ||||
| Internalizing problem behaviors (y9) | 0.160 | (0.179) | 0 | 2 |
| Externalizing problem behaviors (y9) | 0.180 | (0.197) | 0 | 2 |
| PPVT-III (y9) | 92.859 | (14.843) | 37 | 159 |
| Early juvenile delinquency (y9) | 1.238 | (1.766) | 0 | 17 |
| Independent Variable | ||||
| Mother incarceration (y3, y5, y9) | 0.089 | |||
| Control variables | ||||
| Mother race (b) | ||||
| Non-Hispanic White | 0.205 | |||
| Non-Hispanic Black | 0.504 | |||
| Hispanic | 0.258 | |||
| Non-Hispanic other race | 0.034 | |||
| Mother and father a mixed-race couple (b) | 0.144 | |||
| Mother foreign-born (b) | 0.135 | |||
| Mother age (b) | 24.997 | (5.991) | 14 | 47 |
| Mother lived with both biological parents at age 15 (b) | 0.411 | |||
| Mother education (b) | ||||
| Less than high school | 0.331 | |||
| High-school diploma or GED | 0.317 | |||
| Postsecondary education | 0.352 | |||
| Father education (b) | ||||
| Less than high school | 0.321 | |||
| High-school diploma or GED | 0.382 | |||
| Postsecondary education | 0.297 | |||
| Mother in poverty (y1) | 0.421 | |||
| Mother material hardship (y1) | 1.161 | (1.629) | 0 | 9 |
| Mother employment (y1) | 0.553 | |||
| Father employment (y1) | 0.764 | |||
| Mother lives with child’s grandparent (y1) | 0.190 | |||
| Mother relationship with child’s father (y1) | ||||
| Married | 0.285 | |||
| Cohabiting | 0.277 | |||
| Nonresidential romantic | 0.101 | |||
| Separated | 0.338 | |||
| Mother has new partner (y1) | 0.119 | |||
| Mother relationship quality (y1) | 3.263 | (1.412) | 1 | 5 |
| Mother number of children in household (y1) | 2.326 | (1.325) | 0 | 10 |
| Mother parenting stress (y1) | 2.179 | (0.673) | 1 | 4 |
| Mother depression (y1) | 0.155 | |||
| Child male (b) | 0.520 | |||
| Child born low birth weight (b) | 0.093 | |||
| Child temperament (y1) | 0.567 | (0.128) | 0 | 1 |
| Mother smoked during pregnancy (b) | 0.191 | |||
| Mother used drugs or drank alcohol during pregnancy (b) | 0.123 | |||
| Mother has substance abuse problem (y1) | 0.014 | |||
| Father has substance abuse problem (b, y1) | 0.185 | |||
| Mother impulsivity (y5) | 1.526 | (0.483) | 1 | 4 |
| Father impulsivity (y1) | 2.034 | (0.668) | 1 | 4 |
| Mother reports domestic violence (b, y1) | 0.076 | |||
| Mother previously incarcerated (b, y1) | 0.007 | |||
| Father previously incarcerated (b, y1) | 0.328 | |||
| N | 3,197 | |||
Notes. Timing of measurement of all variables in parentheses (b = baseline interview, y1 = 1-year interview, y3 = 3-year interview, y5 = 5-year interview, y9 = 9-year interview). Internalizing problem behaviors and externalizing problem behaviors reported by children’s caregivers. Early juvenile delinquency reported by children.