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. 2023 Dec 1;13:21246. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-48525-3

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Affinity of HMPA for GPR41 and HMPA-mediated metabolic effects via GPR41. (A) cAMP inhibition assay for HMPA or HMCA using mouse-GPR41-expressing HEK293 cells. Cells were cultured for 24 h and then treated with or without 10 μg/mL of doxycycline (Dox) (n = 6 independent cultures). All data are presented as relative to forskolin (Fsk)-induced cAMP levels. Closed symbols represent values from cells treated with Dox, and open symbols denote untreated groups. (B) Gpr41^−/− male mice were fed HFD containing 1% HMPA for 5 weeks. HMPA contents among plasma, liver, and cecum (n = 6 per group). (C) Bodyweight gain during HMPA treatment (n = 8 per group). (D) Mass of the liver, WAT, BAT, and cecum (n = 8 per group). (E) Hepatic TG contents (n = 8 per group). (F) Blood glucose level (n = 8 per group). (G) Plasma insulin level (n = 7 per group). (H) Plasma levels of total cholesterol, NEFAs, and TG (n = 8 per group). All data are presented as the mean ± standard error of the mean. **P < 0.01; *P < 0.05 (Mann–Whitney U test). HFD, high-fat diet; WAT, white adipose tissue; Epi, epididymal white adipose tissue; peri, perirenal white adipose tissue; sub, subcutaneous white adipose tissue; BAT, brown adipose tissue; TG, triglyceride; NEFAs, non-esterified fatty acids.