Table 3.

Novel therapies for inhibiting Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm.

Novel inhibitory agents	Mode of action/target	Reference
Antimicrobial peptides	Kill bacterial cells through both membranolytic and non-membranolytic mechanisms, and by interacting with intracellular targets, such as DNA, RNA, and proteins	LL-37 [236], Peptide 1037 [237], WLBU2 [238], P5 [239], Chensinin-1 [240]
Quorum sensing inhibitors	Signal molecule degradation, preventing accumulation of signal molecules and antagonism of the signals, Attenuation of virulence factors	Brominated furanones [171], meta-bromo-thiolactone [241], M64 [242], Itaconimides [243] 3-amino-7-chloro-2-nonylquinazolin-4 (3H)-one (ACNQ) [244], Silver nanoparticle with 4-nitropyridine N-oxide (4NPO) [245] quercetin [246]
Iron chelators	Chelation of the iron	desferrioxamine-gallium [186], N,N’-bis (2-hydroxybenzyl) ethylenediamine-N,N’-diacetic acid (HBED) [247] deferoxamine and deferasirox [192]
Enzymes	Exopolysaccharide	alginate lyases [248], glucanohydrolases (dextranase and mutanase) [249], glycoside hydrolase (PelAh and PslGH) [250], deoxyribonucleases (e.g., DNase I and Dnase1L2) [251,252]
Immunotherapy (Monoclonal antibodies)	Bacterial DNA-binding proteins	Monoclonal antibodies [253]
Gaseous agents	Dispersal of biofilm by modification of intracellular c-di-GMP levels	Nitric oxide [254]
Photodynamic therapy	Photoinactivation	Tetracationic porphyrin [5,10,15,20-tetrakis (1-methylpyridinium-4-yl)porphyrin tetra-iodide, Tetra-Py+-Me] [255], GD11 [256]
Photothermal therapy	Generates localized heat resulting in irreversible damage to bacterial cells	Gold nanoparticles [257]
Herbal medicine	expression of biofilm-associated genes (rhlR, rhlA and lasB)	H. patriniae extract [258], Eiekikaryu S, Iribakuga and Hyakujunro [259]
Phage therapy	Lysis of cell membrane and wall	IME180 [260], vB_PaeM_SCUT-S1 and vB_PaeM_SCUT-S2 [261], Phage LKA1 O-specific polysaccharide lyase [262], Engineered T7 bacteriophage that encode lactonase enzyme [263]