Table 2.
Roles of selected adipokines in pulmonary hypertension (PH).
| Adipokines | Circulating levels in Obese patients | PH Patients | Rodent models of PH | Functional Roles in PH |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Leptin | ↑ | Plasma↑, lung↑ Pulmonary vasculature↑ |
Plasma↑, lung↑ Pulmonary vasculature↑ |
Promotes PASMC proliferation, enhances marcophage activation, inhibits Treg cell function and exacerbates PH [14,35,41] |
| Resistin | ↑ | Plasma↑, lung↑ | – | Promotes the proliferation of PASMC and PMVEC, facilitates PMVEC migration, increases immune cell recruitment and the productions of proinflammatory meidators and ROS, enhances pulmonary artery constriction, and aggravates pulmonary vascular remodeling [51,52,[54], [55], [56], [57]] |
| NAMPT | ↑ | Plasma↑, lung↑, PMVECs↑ | Plasma↑, lung↑ | Promotes PASMC proliferation and migration, enhances PMVEC proliferation and EndMT [70,71] |
| Chemerin | ↑ | Plasma↑ | Plasma↑, lung↑ | Promotes PASMC proliferation and enhances pulmonary artery constriction [[75], [76], [77]] |
| Lipocalin2 | ↑ | Plasma↑ | Plasma↑, lung↑ | Promotes PASMC proliferation [82,85] |
| Gremlin-1 | ↑ | Plasma↑, lung↑ | Plasma↑, lung↑ | Promotes the proliferation of PASMC and PAEC, enhances PAEC EndMT, and aggravates pulmonary vascular remodeling [89,90,[92], [93], [94]] |
| DPP-4 | ↑ | – | Lung↑ | Promotes PASMC proliferation and migration, enhances PAEC EndMT, facilitates inflammatory cells infiltration and aggravates pulmonary vascular remodeling [[100], [101], [102]] |
| SPARC | ↑ | Lung↑ | Lung↑ | Promotes PASMC proliferation [16] |
| Adiponectin | ↓ | Plasma↑, lung↑ [[114], [115], [116], [117]] | Plasma↓, Pulmonary vasculature↓ [112,113] Plasma↑, lung↑ [[114], [115], [116], [117]] |
Inhibits PASMC proliferation, suppresses immune cell infiltration and immune cell-endothlial cell interaction, induces pulmonary artery dilation, and mitigates pulmonary vascular remodeling [19,[119], [120], [121], [122]] |
| CTRP9 | ↓ | Plasma↓ | Plasma↓ | Inhibits PASMC proliferation and migration, suppresses PMVEC apoptosis, and induces pulmonary artery dilation [[131], [132], [133]] |
| FGF21 | ↑ | Plasma↑ [115,139] | Plasma↑ [115] | Inhibits PASMC proliferation, suppresses PAEC migration and pro-inflammatory mediators production [21,138,[140], [141], [142], [143]] |
| Apelin | ↑ | Plasma↓, Pulmonary vasculature↓ |
Plasma↓, Pulmonary vasculature↓ |
Inhibits PASMC proliferation and migration, suppresses PMVEC proliferation, induces pulmonary artery dilation, and mitigates pulmonary vascular remodeling [148,150,154,155] |
| Omentin-1 | ↓ | Plasma↑ | – | Induces pulmonary artery dilation [20] |
| FSTL1 | ↑ | Plasma↑ | Lung↑ | Inhibits PASMC proliferation and migration [164,165] |
| Vaspin | ↑ | Plasma↓ | – | Inhibits pulmonary artery fibrosis [169] |
| PAI-1 | ↑ | Plasma↑ [171] | Lung↓ [175,176] lung↑ [[178], [179], [180], [181]] | Inhibits PASMC proliferation [175] As a predictor of severity in PH patients [177] |
PASMC, pulmonary artery smooth muscle cell; PAEC, pulmonary arterial endothelial cell; PMVEC, pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells; ROS, reactive oxygen species; EndMT, endothelial to mesenchymal transition.