Table 2.
Impact of wheat processing on the quantity and functionality of ATIs in total and partial extracts.
| Impact on ATI | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Processing treatment | Product | Extraction | Quantity (SDS-PAGE, ELISA, LC–MS/MS) | Wheat-allergic patient IgE binding (Western blot), in vitro cell line, SPT, enzyme inhibition | Reference |
| Fermentation total extract | |||||
| FLB fermentation | Wheat dough | SDS/DTT | IgE reduced | (44) | |
| Yeast fermentation | Wheat dough | SDS/DTT | IgE present | (35) | |
| FLB and yeast fermentation | Wheat dough | SDS/ME | Increase (FLB); equal (yeast) | (45) | |
| FLB and yeast fermentation | Wheat dough | Ammonium bicarbonate ATI isolate | Decreased TNF-α, MCP-1 in FLB vs. yeast | (46)a | |
| FLB, Bacillus spp., Clostridium, Staphylococcus | None | Isolation (>60% ATI) | 0%–95% decrease depending on bacteria | (40) | |
| Yeast fermentation and proteolysis | Wheat dough | SDS/ME | IgE decreased with pepsin and pancreatin hydrolyses, some ATIs were resistant | (37) | |
| Fermentation partial extract | |||||
| Yeast and FLB fermentation | Wheat flour, dough | NaCl | IgE absent with FLB | (47) | |
| FLB fermentation | Wheat dough | Tris-HCl | 0%–98% reduced | (48) | |
| FLB and Yeast fermentation | Wheat dough | NaCl | Decrease (FLB); equal (yeast) | (45) | |
| FLB fermentation | Wheat dough | NaCl | 41% reduction | (22) | |
| FLB and yeast fermentation | Wheat dough | NaCl | Decreased tetrameric in FLB vs. yeast | 22%–29% less amylase inhibition in FLB (yeast no results) | (46) |
| FLB fermentation | None | Isolation (>60% ATI) | In vivo mice: decreased TNF-α and 50% reduced increase IL6 with high ATI degrading FLB | (40) | |
| FLB fermentation | Wheat dough | Chloroform–methanol | Reduction 22%–70% ELISA, 52%–85% RP–HPLC | (49) | |
| Fermentation and baking; total extract | |||||
| Yeast fermentation, baking | Bread | SDS/DTT | IgE absent in crust and crumb | (35) | |
| Yeast fermentation, baking, proteolysis | Bread | SDS/DTT | IgE increase when treated with pancreatin | (35) | |
| FLB and yeast fermentation and baking | Dough and bread | SDS/DTT | Equal after proofing (FLB and yeast), 40%–70% reduced after baking (FLB and yeast); yeast equal FLB | (50) | |
| Yeast and FLB fermentation, baking | Bread | SDS/ME | reduced in yeast and FLB bread | IgE reduced in yeast bread, absent in FLB bread | (47) |
| Fermentation and baking; partial extract | |||||
| FLB and yeast fermentation and baking | Bread | Tris-HCl/EDTA | Reduced (FLB and yeast), FLB more monomers, yeast more di/tetrameric | (51)b | |
| FLB and yeast fermentation and baking | Dough and bread | Ammonium bicarbonate/Iodoacetamide | equal CM3 after proofing (FLB and yeast), 90%–95% reduced after baking (FLB and yeast); yeast less CM3 than FLB | (50) | |
| Fermentation and baking | white, wholemeal, rye and mixed cereals dough and bread | Sodium acetate | Trypsin (TI)/Chymotrypsin (CI) inhibition dough < flour < bread. Wholemeal no TI; TI rye > wheat/mixed cereals > wholemeal; CI wheat > rye > wholemeal > mixed cereals | (52) | |
| Heating, boiling, drying) | |||||
| Boiling | Wheat flour | SDS/DTT | IgE equal | Pastorello et al. 2007 | |
| Boiling | Durum flour | SDS/ME | IgE absent | (38) | |
| Drying | Durum pasta | SDS/DTT | Decrease >110′C | IgE absent | (53) |
| Boiling | Durum pasta | NaCl | Decrease, ATIs in cooking water | (54) | |
| Heating mixolab | Wheat dough | various | 40% increase unextractable albumins/globulins upon mixing and heating; 5% increase extractable albumins/globulins upon mixing and heating | (13)a | |
| Heating mixolab | Wheat dough | SDS/DTT | Absent in dough, 40% decrease 0.19 or 39%–332% increase 0.19, dimeric, CM3 and CM16 | (13) | |
| General; partial extracts and isolated ATI | |||||
| Baking, toasting, boiling | Bread, pasta, biscuits | NaCl | Reduced: boiling/toasting > baking alone > unboiled pasta and biscuits; indications for other epitopes after heat treatments | IgE absent in breads, pizza and boiled pasta, present in fresh, white and wholemeal pasta; SPT: flour vs. wholemeal tinbread equal, toasting wholemeal tinbread and boiling pasta: reduced | (34)a |
| Baking, boiling | Bread, pasta | Phosphate | Inhibition 80%–90% reduced in white and rye bread, 100% in wholemeal bread and 98% in spaghetti | Granum 1978 | |
| Baking, drying | Bread, pasta, cookies, cake | 70% ethanol | No α-amylase inhibition in cake, cookies, crackers, muffin pretzel, cooked pasta, some types of breads, α-amylase inhibition in most types of breads (incl. flour as decoration), uncooked pasta, cous-cous | (55) | |
| None | Wheat flour | NaCl (extractable), isopropanol/DTT (unextractable) | IgE none with unextractable: 0% (n = 20); partial extract 60% (n = 20) of patients | (56) | |
| None | Triticum aestivum and T. monococcum | isolation | Increased TNF-α, IL8 in T. aestivum vs. monococcum | Iacomino et al. 2021 | |
| Thioredoxin | Salt-soluble proteins | NaCl | SPT human: abolishment of reaction | Matusmoto et al. 2007a | |
| Thioredoxin | Salt-soluble proteins | NaCl | In vivo dog: reduction of allergic skin reaction | Buchanan et al. 2007a | |
FLB, Fructolactobacilli; SPT, skin prick test.
TNF-α, MCP-1, IL6: inflammation markers released after cell line challenge with ATI isolate.
a
Total albumin/globulin extract.
b
Identification of ATI based on molecular weight in SDS-PAGE.