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. 2023 Nov 22;11:1290707. doi: 10.3389/fped.2023.1290707

Table 2.

Unadjusted and adjusted linear regression models of Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL) by early and late exposure during pregnancy.

MSEL scores Unadjusted Adjusteda
Parameter estimate 95% Confidence Intervals p value Parameter estimate 95% Confidence Intervals p value
Lower Upper Lower Upper
Early composite standard score
Any vs. None 2.89 −1.46 7.23 0.19 4.56 −1.20 10.32 0.12
Early vs. None 0.9 −4.11 5.91 0.72 2.40 −3.92 8.72 0.45
Late vs. None 6 . 98 0.23 13.73 0.04 8.63 1.02 16.23 <0.03
Late vs. Early Only 6.08 −1.62 13.78 0.12 6.23 −1.43 13.88 0.11
Expressive language T-Score
Any vs. None 3.99 1.25 6.75 <0.004 4.96 1.29 8.63 0.008
Early vs. None 2.93 −0.19 6.06 0.07 3.81 −0.31 7.93 0.07
Late vs. None 6.48 2.05 10.91 0.004 7.65 2.43 12.87 0.004
Late vs. Early Only 3.55 −1.43 8.52 0.16 3.84 −1.34 9.02 0.15
Fine motor T-Score
Any vs. None 0.34 −3.31 3.99 0.85 0.24 −4.86 5.35 0.93
Early vs. None −0.35 −4.53 3.82 0.87 −0.70 −6.30 4.89 0.80
Late vs. None 1.92 −3.95 7.79 0.52 2.14 −4.72 9.01 0.54
Late vs. Early Only 2.27 −4.34 8.89 0.5 2.84 −4.02 9.71 0.41
Gross motor T-Score
Any vs. None 4.00 0.08 7.93 0.05 7.23 1.90 12.57 0.01
Early vs. None 4.75 0.28 9.21 <0.04 8.34 2.55 14.13 0.01
Late vs. None 2.23 −4.17 8.62 0.49 4.75 −2.58 12.08 0.20
Late vs. Early Only −2.52 −9.68 4.64 0.49 −3.59 −10.86 3.68 0.33
Receptive language T-Score
Any vs. None 2.68 0.46 4.90 <0.02 3.19 0.08 6.30 0.04
Early vs. None 2.26 −0.27 4.79 <0.08 2.63 −0.76 6.02 0.13
Late vs. None 3.67 0.08 7.26 <0.05 4.40 0.15 8.65 0.04
Late vs. Early Only 1.41 −2.61 5.44 0.49 1.77 −2.46 6.00 0.41
Visual reception T-Score
Any vs. None −0.73 −3.81 2.34 0.64 2.70 −1.40 6.80 0.20
Early vs. None −2.06 −5.54 1.42 0.24 1.56 −2.87 5.99 0.49
Late vs. None 2.43 −2.55 7.40 0.34 5.28 −0.34 10.89 0.07
Late vs. Early Only 4.49 −1.08 10.05 0.11 3.71 −1.83 9.26 0.18

Bolded values are statistically significant.

a

Pregnant person’s age, race, education, monthly household income, prenatal alcohol use, prenatal tobacco use, Spielberger state anxiety, Spielberger Trait anxiety, gestational age at delivery, and infant sex.