Table 2.

Details of hand measurements with outcome measures.

Type of Outcome Measure	Details and Description	Patient Specification
Fugl-Meyer Assessment of Motor Recovery Upper Extremity (FMA—UE)	The upper extremity motor section of the Fugl-Meyer Assessment (FMA) measures the level of impairment using Brunnstrom’s stages of recovery after stroke. The assessment includes arm movements in and out of synergy, reflexes, the ability to isolate shoulder, elbow, and wrist movements, and grasping objects. The FMA-UE consists of five main domains: motor function, sensory function, balance, joint range of motion (ROM), and joint pain. The subscales can be administered separately. To conduct the assessment, a tennis ball and a round container are required. The subscales can be managed separately [5,58,94,95].	Neurological [96].
Chedoke Arm and Hand Inventory (CAHAI)	The CAHAI evaluates the ability to perform everyday bimanual activities in stroke patients. It assesses various aspects of hand and arm function, such as coordination, grip, dexterity, and upper limb strength. The inventory is specifically designed for use in the stroke population [97].	Neurological [97].
Action Research Arm Test (ARAT)	The ARAT is designed to evaluate the upper limb function in neurological patients. The test consists of 19 items divided into four sections: grasping, gripping, pinching, and gross movement. It enables the quantification of these skills [98,99].	Neurological [98].
Box and Block Test (BBT)	The BBT is used to assess the manual dexterity of the hand. During the test, patients move 2.5 cm blocks as quickly as possible within a short period of time, using only their thumb and index finger. The attempt to move the blocks lasts 60 s [100].	Neurological [101,102].
Nine Hole Peg Test (9-HPT)	The 9-HPT involves placing nine pegs on a specially designed board. Once placed, the pegs must be removed using only one hand [103]. The test is timed, and patients are instructed to complete the task as quickly as possibe without sacrificing accuracy.	Neurological [104].
Adult Assisting Hand Assessment Stroke (Ad-AHA)	The scale consists of 19 items, which are assessed by observing the patient’s performance during functional activities, “present”, or “sandwich” tasks. It tests ambidextritye, as these tasks require the patient to coordinate and use their affected hand in collaboration with their unaffected hand to accomplish the activity effectively [105].	Neurological [58].
Wolf Motor Function Test (WMFT)	The WMFT is an assessment tool designed to evaluate upper limb motor function in post-stroke patients. The test comprises a series of reaching and manipulation activities that patients are required to perform within a set time frame [106]. It assesses various aspects of upper limb function, such as grip strength, dexterity, coordination, and the ability to perform functional tasks efficiently.	Neurological [106].
Motricity Index (MI)	Was developed to measure limb motor function and muscle strength in paralyzed stroke patients. For the upper limb assessment, the MI evaluates the shoulder abduction, elbow flexion, and pinch grip [107].	Neurological [107].
Michigan Hand Outcomes Questionnaire (MHQ)	It is a self-completion questionnaire. It includes 57 items and covers six domains: general hand function, daily activities, pain, work performance, aesthetics, and patient satisfaction with the functional capabilities of the hand [108]. In neurological patients, it is used for hemiparesis and nerve compression [109].	Orthopedic, rheumatoid arthritis, and neurological [108,109].
Motor Activity Log (MAL)	The MAL is a tool used to assess the impaired arm based on 14 daily activities performed routinely throughout the day. The scale evaluates the quality of movement (Quality of Movement or QOM) and the amount of use (Amount of Use or AOU) in which the patient utilizes the affected arm [110].	Neurological [110].
Jebsen–Taylor Hand Function Test (JHFT)	The test is a standardized assessment that consists of seven parts and evaluates unilateral hand functions. The test measures the patient’s ability to perform various tasks that mimic everyday activities, such as picking up small objects, writing, and manipulating items. The items needed to perform the test include a paper clip, cans, and coins [111].	Neurological and amputation status [112].
Duruöz Hand Index (DHI)	The DHI is a self-reported questionnaire consisting of 18 questions related to hand function. These questions focus on various daily activities that involve the use of hands, such as buttoning, writing, cutting food, opening doors, and lifting objects, from five domains (kitchen, dressing, hygiene, office, and other). Each question requires the respondent to rate their ability to perform the activity on a scale from zero (no difficulty) to five (unable to perform the task). The index evaluates ambidextrous dexterity and provides a total score, with higher scores indicating greater impairment in hand function [113].	Neurological (stroke) [113], rheumatoid arthritis [114], osteoarthritis [115], systemic scleroderma [116], and hemodialysis patients [117].
Ashworth Scale (AS) Modified Ashworth Scale (MAS)	The AS is a 5-point numerical scale used to assess spasticity. Scores range from 0 to 4, with 0 indicating no resistance and 4 indicating a limb that is rigid in flexion or extension [118]. The MAS is a 6-point scale that expands on the original AS, with scores ranging from 0 to 4, and an additional rating of 1+ for more precise assessment. Muscle evaluation is conducted by measuring passive stiffness, joint range of motion, and grip and movement ability [119]. Both scales are designed to assess muscle tone and spasticity in patients.	Neurological patients with spasticity after botulinum toxin injection [118,119,120].
Tardieu Scale (TS) Modified Tardieu Scale (MTS)	The TS is a five-step scale used to assess spasticity. It evaluates two parameters: the degree of spasticity (a scale that assesses the quality of a muscle’s response to stretching) and the angle of spasticity (the angle at which the muscle’s response occurs). Assessments are conducted at three speeds: as slow as possible (V1), falling under gravity (V2), and as fast as possible (V3) [121,122]. The MTS takes into account muscle responses to passive movement at two different speeds (low and high). In the high-speed measurement, the joint moves as fast as possible through its full range of motion. The angle at which the muscles first activate the stretch reflex is measured as R1. The angle of full passive range of motion (ROM) is R2. The difference between these angles (R2-R1) represents the potential ROM [120]. Both scales are designed to assess muscle tension and spasticity in patients.	Neurological patients with spasticity after botulinum toxin injection [120,122].
Disability of Arm-Shoulder-Hand questionnaire (DASH)	The DASH is a self-reported questionnaire consisting of 30 items that assess various concerns and functions related to the arm, shoulder, and hand. Each item offers five response options, allowing patients to rate their level of difficulty or discomfort. While the DASH is predominantly used in orthopedic patients [86,123], it can also be employed, with some modifications, in neurological patients such as those with stroke or multiple sclerosis [85].	Orthopedic, musculoskeletal diseases, neurological, and stroke [124].
Patient-Rated Wrist Evaluation questionnaire (PRWE)	The PRWE is a self-administered questionnaire specifically designed for assessing wrist-related conditions. It consists of 15 self-completion items that focus on evaluating two subscales: wrist pain and function [125]. The pain subscale contains five items about pain experienced in various situations (resting, specific movements, lifting, and daily activities). The function subscale includes items that evaluate the patient’s wrist function in specific (such as turning the doorknob) and usual activities (daily living).	Orthopedic patients, surgical patients after fracture of the distal root of the radius and scaphoid bone, dysfunction of the distal root of the prominence-ulnar bone, carpal tunnel syndrome [114,115,116,125,126,127], and rheumatoid arthritis [128]. Rarely, neurological patients [124].
Carpal Tunnel Questionnaire scales (CTQ)	The CTQ is a patient-reported outcome measure used to assess symptom severity and functional status of individuals with carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) or other wrist-related issues. The CTQ comprises two subscales: the Symptom Severity Scale (SSS) and the Functional Status Scale (FSS). Symptom Severity Scale (SSS): The SSS is designed to evaluate the severity of symptoms associated with carpal tunnel syndrome or wrist problems. It includes questions about the frequency and intensity of symptoms, such as numbness, tingling, pain, and weakness, as well as their impact on sleep and daily activities. Patients rate their symptoms on a scale, typically ranging from one (mildest) to five (most severe). Functional Status Scale (FSS): The FSS assesses the patient’s functional status and their ability to perform daily activities involving the affected hand and wrist. It consists of questions related to activities, such as writing, buttoning clothes, gripping objects, and carrying out household tasks. Patients rate their ability to perform these activities on a scale, typically ranging from one (no difficulty) to five (unable to do) [129,130].	Patients with carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) and after wrist surgery [122], neurological patients, and stroke [129,131,132].
Upper Extremity Function Scale (UEFS)	The UEFS is a patient-reported outcome measure used to evaluate the impact of upper limb impairment on the ability of patients to perform daily activities. The scale is applicable to both orthopedic and neurological conditions affecting the upper extremity function [88]. The UEFS comprises eight activities that involve the use of the upper extremity. These activities include writing, sleeping, washing dishes, lifting small objects with fingers, driving a car for more than 30 min, opening doors, taking a milk jug out of the refrigerator, and opening jars [91].	Neurological and orthopedic [91].
Stroke Upper Limb Capacity Scale (SULCS)	The SULCS is a clinical assessment tool designed to evaluate the functional capacity of the upper limb in stroke patients. It consists of 10 items that reflect a range of daily living activities, from simple to more complex tasks, involving the upper extremity. The SULCS is divided into three categories, assessing different aspects of upper limb function: Proximal Functioning (three items): These items evaluate the ability to perform activities that primarily involve the shoulder and elbow joints. Basic Hand and Finger Control (four items): These items assess the ability to perform tasks requiring basic grasp and manipulation skills with the hand and fingers. Advanced Distal Functioning (three items): These items evaluate the ability to perform more complex tasks involving precise finger movements and dexterity [133,134].	Neurological [133,134].
Frenchay Arm Test (FAT)	The FAT is a clinical assessment tool used to evaluate activity limitations in the upper extremity, particularly among stroke patients. It is designed to assess the patient’s ability to perform functional tasks that involve of manipulation of objects. The test consists of five tasks: Holding a ruler with the affected hand while drawing lines with the unaffected hand; Grasping and lifting a cylindrical object (e.g., a glass or cup) and performing a drinking motion; Picking up a small object, such as a paper clip, and placing it onto a surface; Grasping a comb and performing a combing motion. Picking up and placing a paper clip onto the edge of a sheet of paper [135].	Post-stroke neurological patients with spasticity after botulinum toxin injection [136,137].
ABILHAND questionnaire	The ABILHAND is designed to assess manual dexterity and hand function. This assessment is conducted through a structured interview process. It consists of questions related to 23 bimanual activities, which the patient evaluates as impossible, difficult, or easy [138,139].	Neurological, stroke, and rheumatoid arthritis [1,138].
Stroke Impact Scale Hand (SIS Hand)	Part of the Stroke Impact Scale which assesses eight domains: mobility, communication, emotions, strength, hand function, memory, thinking, participation, and ability to perform independent activities of daily living, the SIS Hand focuses on hand function and dexterity. It consists of five items that evaluate the ability to perform tasks, such as carrying heavy objects or opening jar [140].	Neurological and stroke [140,141].
Purdue Pegboard Test	The Purdue Pegboard Test is a time-based assessment designed to evaluate an individual’s manual dexterity and hand-eye coordination. The test involves placing as many pegs as possible into the holes on a specialized board within a 30 s timeframe. This is followed by folding pegs, pads, and collars as quickly as possible within a 1 min interval. The tasks are performed individually with each hand and then simultaneously with both hands [142,143].	Originally developed for occupational physicians to assess the manual dexterity of candidates for industrial assembly line work, the Purdue Pegboard Test has since been adapted for broader applications. It is now used to evaluate the progress of orthopedic patients recovering from hand injuries and surgeries, as well as neurological patients undergoing rehabilitation [142,143,144].
Sollerman Hand Function Test (SHFT)	The SHFT is a comprehensive assessment designed to evaluate the quality of hand movements, with a particular emphasis on grasping skills, within a specified time frame. The test consists of 20 subtests, each targeting various hand-related tasks that simulate daily activities [145]. The subtests mimic real-life tasks (cutting with scisors, buttoning and unbuttoning, etc.) and are administered by a trained professional.	Surgical, post-injury, orthopedic rheumatoid arthritis, and neurological after stroke [134,135,136,145,146,147].
Reaching Performance Scale for Stroke (RPSS)	The RPSS is used to assess the quality of movement during two tasks of reaching and grasping with the upper limb and compensatory movements. During the tasks, the patient is trying to reach objects that are far away and close by [148]. A scale used to characterize improvements in upper limb motor skills [149].	Neurological patients with hemiparesis and patients after stroke [148,149].
Lovett scale	A five-grade scale for measuring muscle strength [150].	Neurological patients, after stroke, and patients with reduced muscle strength [150,151].