Table 3.

Summary of the effects of vitamin K (VK) on bone health in humans over the past decade. (vitamin K has no effect on bones).

Study Population	Interventions	Results	Reference
Healthy men and women (≥65 years, n = 2944)	VK1, men: 266.7 μg/d vs. 240.9 μg/d; women: 239.8 μg/d vs. 238.9 μg/d; 1 year	Hip or nonvertebral fracture risk was not associated with dietary VK intake	Chan, Leung, and Woo (2012) [84]
Women with postmenopausal osteoporosis (>60 years, n = 101)	Risedronate and VK2 vs. risedronate; 1 year	No difference in vertebral fracture incidence	Kasukawa et al. (2014) [85]
Patients with systemic autoimmune diseases (≥51.1 years, n = 60)	Concomitant administration of bisphosphonate in all patients, VK2 (45 mg/d) vs. none; 1.5 years	No difference in bone mineral density and fracture rate	Shikano et al. (2016) [86]
Women with osteoporosis (≥65 years, n = 1983)	VK2 (45 mg/d) plus risedronate (2.5 mg/d or 17.5 mg/week) vs. risedronate (2.5 mg/d or 17.5 mg/week); 2 years	Concurrent treatment with VK2 and risedronate has worse effect compared with monotherapy with risedronate in terms of fracture prevention	Tanaka et al. (2017) [87]
Patients with osteoporosis (68.7 years, n = 105)	VK1 (1 mg/d) vs. MK-4 (45 mg/d) vs. placebo; 18 months	No difference in parameters of hip geometry	Moore et al. (2023) [88]