Table 2.
Summary of the recent lab DIC applications for civil engineering tests.
| Author | Specimen Type and Test Method | Measured Parameters | DIC Specifications (Camera Resolution, Measurement Resolution, DIC Software) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Concrete Beams | |||
| [60] | Full-scale RC beam after 25 years of service in an industrial environment, four-point bending. | Displacement fields; cracking process. |
1-MP, 1.38 px/mm, SeptD [121] |
| [37] | Plain concrete prisms 840 mm long, 100 mm wide, and 100 mm high; a three-point bending and a crack mouth opening displacement test. | Visualization of the crack opening and strain monitoring. | 5-MP, 20 px/mm, VIC-2D [104] |
| [36] | RC beams with a length of 2.5 m, a distance between the supports of 2.3 m, and a height and width of 0.3 m and 0.2 m, respectively; four-point bending test. | Measuring the displacement and deformation fields at the side and the bottom surface of the beams. |
Not reported, Not reported, VIC-3D [110] |
| [50] | Two different sections and materials, i.e., a steel HSS and a series of RC beams; three-point bending test. | Longitudinal strains with the height at a section (curvature). | 18-MP, 27.8 px/mm, GeoPIV [122,123,124] |
| [53] | Full-scale deep I-beam prestressed concrete beam; shear capacity test. | In-plane and out-of-plane strains; tensile and compressive strain locations. | A pair of 12.6-MP, Not reported, GOM 3D [109] |
| [33,39] | Geometrically scaled concrete beams under a bending test. | Fracture parameters, such as crack openings and fracture zone size | 1.4-MP, 5.5–28.5 px/mm, VIC-2D [104] |
| [34] | Prestressed concrete sleepers; three-point bending test. | Critical damage area evolution as a function of loading periods | 5-MP, 7.1 px/mm, VIC-3D [110] |
| [103] | RC beams: 1. full-scale rectangular beams; 2. one-third scaled mock-ups; four-point bending. | Evolution of the crack pattern; crack width, deformation, and strain monitoring. | 12-MP, 2 px/mm, MICMAC [125] |
| [65] | RC beams with both small and large crack slip; three- and four-point bending tests. | Crack width and crack slip measurement. | 18-MP, 7.5–21 px/mm, GeoPIV [122,123,124] |
| [62] | Normal strength, high strength concrete, and high strength fiber concrete, with nine RC beams tested under four-point bending. | Strain, crack detection, development, and width measurements. | Not reported, Not reported, GOM 3D [109] |
| [61] | Composite-retrofitted RC beams; four-point bending. | Strain and displacement monitoring, cracking, and debonding. | 5-MP, 4.6 px/mm, DaVis 8.2.1 [126] |
| [57] | RC beams reinforced with steel fibers; beam dimensions: 1500 mm length, 125 mm width, and 250 mm depth; four-point test; beams with a shear s/d ratio = 1.8. | Cracks and crack pattern identification;tracking the response of the concrete across a crack; horizontal and vertical displacements. |
5-MP, 7–10 px/mm, VIC-2D [104] |
| [58] | Three RC beams, two with shear and one without shear reinforcement, with dimensions: 100 × 150 × 2000 mm3; four-point loading test. | Crack mapping; longitudinal strain fields. |
18.4-MP, 4.4 px/mm, Ncorr [105] |
| [56] | Five RC beams, strengthened with NSM-BFRP, with a length of 2.1 m; four-point bending test. | Full-field strain and displacement contours; mid-span deflection; measurement of crack width. |
5-MP, Not reported, Not reported |
| [106] | Fiber-reinforced concrete beams, six 1143 × 229 × 152 mm with and six 507 × 152 × 152 without, longitudinal reinforcement; four-point test. | Crack kinematics (location, number, spacing, and width). | Not reported, Not reported, GOM 2D [109] |
| [64] | A total of 24 (RCC) beams of 1800 mm × 150 mm × 200 mm in size. | Obtaining the moment (M)—curvature (κ) relationships. | 24.1-MP, Not reported, Ncorr [105] |
| [46] | Post-tensioned, precast crane runway I-section beams, with dimensions of 6 m in length and 0.8 m in height, after more than 50 years of use; three-point bending test. | Full-field strains;detecting and locating the cracks on the surface; combining DIC with R-CNN. | Not reported, Not reported, μDIC [127] |
| [128] | RC beam with dimensions of 4 × 0.3 × 0.15 m; four-point bending test. | Strain field. | Not reported, Not reported, Ncorr [105] |
| [38] | Full-scale RC beam used for 60 years in an industrial environment; four-point bending test. | Strain, crack pattern and distribution, global and local deformation. | 5-MP, 7.7 px/mm, DANTEC Istra 4D [129] |
| [63] | Polyolefin fiber RC beam; three-point bending fracture test results. | Crack width; crack opening displacement plane. |
5-MP, 200 px/mm, Not reported |
| [52] | Coral aggregate concrete beam with dimensions of 1350 mm × 200 mm× 120 mm; four-point bending. | A continuous-view multi-camera DIC to continuously measure the full-surface deformation. | Eight cameras, 5-MP, 290 px/mm, Not reported |
| [130] | Four concrete beams (150 × 150 × 600 mm) tested under four-point bending load. | Displacement fields;crack propagation. | 18-MP, Not reported, Py2DIC [131] |
| [132] | A 1.4 m long inverted prestressed T-beam was tested under four-point bending. | Longitudinal compressive strain profile. | 12-MP, 10 px/mm, GOM 3D [109] |
| 2. Columns and Pillars | |||
| [66] | Multilayer glass and polymeric film sheet columns with 1000 mm height, 5 × 10 mm sheet thickness, and 70 mm width; compression test. | Determination of the relative deformation and the strain of the glass. | 18-MP, Not reported, GOM 2D [109] |
| [41] | Three types of RC tie members tested under uniaxial tensile loading with the samples clamped to the testing machine using the reinforcing bars. | Determination of the surface displacements and strains of the columns. | 24-MP, 7.5–10 px/mm, GOM 2D [109] |
| [68] | Two series of glass columns with 70 × 100 and 35 × 100 sections, both 1 m in height; all samples were tested under compression loading. | The use of 2D-DIC for glass columns under compression is not possible because the columns are deformed in the direction of the three axes in space. For this study, it is necessary to use 3D-DIC. | 18-MP, Not reported, GOM 2D [109] |
| [70] | Pre-loaded RC columns loaded under heating and cooling, then repaired with CFRP sheets; compressions test. | Determination of both lateral and axial surface strains of the undamaged and post-heated CFRP-confined columns. | 5-MP, 1.1 px/mm, VIC-3D [110] |
| [52] | Circular timber slender columns, 100 mm in diameter and 1800 mm in height were tested under compression loading. | Full reconstruction of the 3D shape of the circular column. | Eight cameras, 5-MP, 290 px/mm, Not reported |
| [73] | A precast concrete column reinforced with steel-FRP composite bars; six columns (300 × 360 × 1400 mm) were tested under low reversed cyclic loading. | Strain distribution; moment-curvature curves; plastic hinge region; rotation calculation. |
Not reported, Not reported, Not reported |
| [133] | Concrete column under controlled load with a vertical stress of 2.4 MPa under compression. | Displacement and strain field. | 12-MP, 22 px/mm, Global DIC and 7D [121] |
| 3. Masonry Walls and Infills | |||
| [8] | A 30 × 40 cm 45° brick wall and a 150 × 120 cm steel-framed brick wall, both tested under compression load. | Displacement and strain measurement;crack observation | 6.3-MP, 5 px/mm, Not reported |
| [3] | Several 1/6th scale masonry wall panels, using a centrifuge to correctly model the self-weight, with uniform lateral loading using airbag or non-uniform hydraulic loading. | Deflection of the panels; identification of cracks in the wall panel. |
Not reported, Not reported, Not reported |
| [13] | Eleven full-scale unreinforced masonry walls, ranging from 1.5 × 1.6 m to 3.6 × 2.6 m, were subjected to in-plane cyclic loading. | Deformation, strain, and crack distribution. | 12-MP and 36-MP, 1.5–1.7 px/mm, VIC-2D [104] |
| [10] | One single-bay infill, one single-bay partially infilled frame, a two-bay partially infilled frame, and a squat infilled frame; all were subjected to cyclic lateral loading. | Strain fields; strut inclination. |
Not reported, Not reported, CORRELI-Q4 [134] |
| [15] | Three full-scale masonry walls with dimensions of 2.4 × 2.4 m, were confined in an RC frame; all specimens were subjected to lateral in-plane cyclic loading. | drift and diagonal deformation fields;slip at the interface between the masonry and the concrete tie column. | 5-MP, 0.72 px/mm, VIC-3D [110] |
| [6] | A large-scale physical model reproducing both the soil-structure interaction and the masonry structure. The loading is applied by means of ground surface displacement. | Proposing a method of quantification of DIC measurement errors; reconstruction of motion displacement fields; damage evaluation. |
4-MP, 7 px/mm, VIC-3D [110] |
| [9] | A full-scale 4.2 × 2.3 m masonry wall confined with an RC frame. Two tests were applied: one in-plane shear test and a quasi-static out-of-plane cyclic test. | Displacement and strain fields; principle strains; out-of-plane displacement. |
4-MP, 2 px/mm, VIC-3D [110] |
| [11] | A full-scale 4.2 × 2.3 m infilled RC frame subjected to in-plane testing, with one double leaf-panel. | Diagonal cracking; corner crushing; shear-friction failure. | 4-MP, 2 px/mm, VIC-3D [110] |
| [4] | A full-scale 3.8 × 3.8 m partially grouted masonry shear wall tested under constant vertical compression loading and horizontal lateral loading using a quasi-static displacement procedure. | Crack patterns; diagonal tension and compression strains; bed joint shear; base strain. |
5-MP, 0.5 px/mm, GOM 3D [109] |
| [12] | Ten full-scale unreinforced masonry walls, ranging from 1.5 × 1.6 m to 3.6 × 2.6 m, were subjected to in-plane cyclic loading. | Deformation, strain, and crack distribution. | 12-MP and 36-MP, 1.5–1.7 px/mm, VIC-2D [104] |
| [5] | Brick masonry prisms with dimensions of 520 × 220 × 100 mm were tested under uniaxial compression loading. | In-plane strains and displacement. | 12-MP, Not reported, Ncorr [105] |
| [7] | Six 710 × 710 mm brick masonry specimens were tested using diagonal tension tests to evaluate the shear behavior. | Identification of the strain distribution at the moment of failure; deformation measurement; shear modulus. |
24-MP, 100 px/mm GOM 2D [109] |
| [14] | Different types of engineered masonry panels (2 × 2 m), made of semi-interlocking masonry (SIM) units, were subjected to in-plane cyclic loading. | von Mises strain fields; joint opening and propagation; horizontal and vertical displacement. |
8-MP and 36-MP, 7.4–21.5 px/mm, VIC-2D [104] |
| [135] | Four full-scale masonry infill models (3.1 × 3.0 m), surrounded by an RC frame, were tested against out-of-plane loading. | Full-field out-of-plane deformation and strain concentration analysis. | 12-MP, Not reported, GOM 3D [109] |
| 4. Composite Materials | |||
| [90] | GFRP sandwich structure, with a speckled target of 1600 × 1300 mm, subjected to a blast load. | Deformation monitoring; failure mechanism. |
Two high-speed cameras of 1000FPS, 1-MP, 0.787 px/mm, GOM 3D [109] |
| [75] | FRP-masonry composite is used to characterize the bonding interface through tensile and shear tests. | Longitudinal strain distribution in tensile testing; strain distribution along the bonded length in shear testing. |
2-MP, 27 px/mm, GOM 2D [109] |
| [69] | CFRP-steel composite structure with dimensions of 150 × 150 × 500 mm.; shear test to monitor the bond-slip, and compression test to monitor the buckling location. | Derivation of the bond–slip relationship between the CFRP-steel interface. The precise location of the buckling and delamination of a CFRP-steel composite. |
A multi-camera system, 4-MP and 5-MP, Not reported, PMLAB DIC-3D_2014a [136]. |
| [115] | Bond and tensile tests were conducted on composite reinforcements comprising different textiles and matrices. | Damage pattern (crack location and width); load transfer mechanism between composite-to-substrate. |
24-MP, 9 px/mm, Two types of software: CivEng Vision [137] and Ncorr [105] |
| [91] | Several DIC (2D and 3D) methods were employed using tensile tests to characterize 25 CFRP composite specimens. | The Young’s modulus; the Poisson ratio; displacement and strain. |
Two systems: 2D: 18-MP, 3D: two 18-MP, Not reported, 2D: Ncorr [105], 3D: MultiDIC [138] |
| [116] | Twenty specimens of 20 × 30 cm of geosynthetics geogrid composites were tested under uniaxial tensile loading. | Displacement and strain distribution; maximum principal strain |
Not reported, Not reported, Not reported, |
| [71] | Ten FRP-confined concrete composite specimens were tested under uniaxial compression load. | Axial, lateral, and von Mises strains. | 2.8-MP, Not reported, VIC-3D [110] |
| [92] | Review of static and dynamic tests of a large-scale composite structure under various loadings, such as buckling, crash, rotating, impact, and fatigue loads. | Full-field deformations; displacement field; dynamic measurements. |
3.2-MP, 4-MP, 5-MP, 12-MP, 3.84 px/mm, GOM 2D & 3D [109] |
| [89] | A Big Area Additive Manufacturing(BAAM) system using a printedfull-size wall with a building envelope of 6.1 × 2.4 × 1.8 (length × width × height). | Thermal residual stresses monitoring. | 12.2-MP, 13.6–32 px/mm, VIC-2D [104] |
| [93] | Six FRP grid specimens consisting of BFRP and CFRP composites, 300 mm in length, were tested under uniaxial tensile loading. | Young’s Modulus; vertical strain. |
18-MP, Not reported, Ncorr [105] |
| [139] | A 500 mm long, 90 mm wide, and 7.5 mm thickness steel plate with an edge crack, repaired with a CFRP sheet, is subjected to uniaxial tensile loading. | Displacement field; crack growth propagation trajectories. |
8-MP, Not reported, VIC-2D [104] |
| 5. Structural Joints | |||
| [86] | Bolted steel connection specimens tested under uniaxial tensile loading. | In-plane displacement distributions. | 0.78-MP, Not reported, MATLAB [107] |
| [79] | A steel beam-to-column connection specimen acting as a cantilever loaded at its free end. | Minimum measurable strains at six locations at the joint. | 36.3-MP, Not reported, GOM 2D [109] |
| [81] | Two 25 × 20 sections of welded steel joints, 20 mm thick, were tested under uniaxial tensile loading. | Strain distribution. | Not reported, Not reported, PMLAB DIC-3D_2014a [136]. |
| [76] | Interfacial behavior between a reinforcement material and a substrate was evaluated through a series of single-lap shear tests. | Slip distribution. | 18-MP, Not reported, GOM 2D [109], Ncorr [105] |
| [117] | Adhesively bonded single lap joints tested under tensile and shear loads. | Shear strain distributions; strain distributions in the adhesive layer. |
Not reported, Not reported, GOM 2D [109] |
| [45] | Pretensioned bolted beam-to-column connection anomalies were detected during the frame’s vibrations caused by harmonic excitation. | Damage and anomaly detection in the connections. | 1-MP, 15 px/mm, DANTEC Istra 4D [129] |
| [17] | A downscaled model of RC structure subjected to seismic vibrations. | Biaxial deformation at the beam-column region; displacement and angle of inter-story drift. |
0.3-MP, Not reported, MATLAB [107] |
| [78] | A double cantilever beam (DCB) with aluminium alloy substrate was tested with a screw-driven tensile testing machine. | Crack length measurement; crack tip separation; beam rotation; energy release rate. |
18-MP, 28.5 px/mm, GOM 2D [109] |
| [84] | A single-lap hybrid bonded-bolted (HBB) joint with a bolted hole in the center; the samples were tested under uniaxial loading. | The shear strain around the bolt; surface failure location identification. |
1-MP, 30.7–31.9 px/mm, MatchID [140] |
| [83] | A five-story steel-frame braced structure with a 6 m height and a 2 × 2 m plan area, subjected to bi-directional seismic excitations. | Displacement, acceleration, and velocity time history of the beam-column joint; inter-story drift; strain in joints and floor. |
8 high-speed cameras, 2.3-MP, 2.2 px/mm, VIC-2D & 3D [104,110] |
| [85] | Bolted fiber metal laminate joints consisting of three layers of 0.4 mm thickness T3 aluminium and four layers of GFRP. The samples were tested under uniaxial loading. | Displacement distribution; compression and tension damage dominant regions. |
2.3-MP, Not reported, VIC-3D [110] |
| [82] | Three test coupons for each of the bonded, bolted, and hybrid joints were tested under uniaxial tensile loading. | Strain field of the joint; strain field over the adhesive layer along the thickness; failure mechanism. |
5-MP, Not reported, VIC-2D & 3D [104,110] |
| [141] | Twenty-seven dry joint (flat, single-keyed, three-keyed) specimens of prestressed segmental bridges were subjected to push-off tests. | Joint sliding; deformation and crack analysis. |
3.6-MP, Not reported, GOM 2D [109] |
| 6. Steel Structures | |||
| [96] | A W4 × 13 steel beam tested under three-point bending. | Beam deflection. | 2-MP, Not reported, VIC-2D [104] |
| [95] | A wide-flange steel beam, 5 m long, 0.2 m wide, and 8 mm thick, tested under three-point bending. | Beam deflection. | 8-MP, Not reported, Not reported |
| [16] | A five-story steel framed structure subjected to a series of dynamic experiments. | Dynamic analysis and damage detection. | 2-MP, Not reported, Not reported |
| [50] | A hollow steel section (HSS) beam, 1.2 m long, and a 0.1 × 0.1 m section loaded under three-point bending. | Longitudinal strains; beam curvature. |
18-MP, 27.8 px/mm, GeoPIV [122,123,124] |
| [21] | Free vibration and earthquake tests on a steel frame (0.5 length × 0.3 width × 1.1 height). | Displacement, velocity, and acceleration. | high-speed 5-MP, Not reported, Not reported |
| [80] | A 152 mm adhesively bonded double-cantilever beam (DCB), loaded at its free end. | Displacement and strain. displacements within a cohesive zone; rotation and shear strain. |
Two 5-MP, Not reported, VIC-2D [104] |
| [118] | A thin 950 mm long cantilever steel beam was subjected to static loads at five locations. | Scale factor; full-field beam deflection. |
1.3-MP, Not reported, Not reported |
| 7. Slabs and Other Members | |||
| [97] | Uniaxial tensile testing of dog-bone specimens. | Three speckle pattern configurations were used to measure the strain. | 5-MP, Not reported, VIC-2D & 3D [104,110] |
| [142] | Three 1/3 of two-span RC bridges were tested under bidirectional earthquake conditions. | Frequency estimation, damping ratio, and mode shapes of the bridges. |
5-MP, Not reported, GOM 2D [109] |
| [102] | Static loading of corrugated metal pipes. | Deflection and pipe profile. | 18-MP, 3 px/mm–4 px/mm, GOM 2D [109] |
| [42,59] | Reinforced concrete RC panel subjected to diagonal tension. | Automated crack width and slip measurement. | 29-MP, 2.63 px/mm, VIC-3D [110] |
| [101] | Bimrock disc specimens, 40 mm diameter and 15 mm thickness were tested under the tensile Brazilian disc test. | Crack initiation. Maximum shear strain; overall failure pattern of three types of bimrocks. |
NA-MP, 60-fps. Not reported, Not reported |
| [98] | Series of semi-circular bending tests of the mine tailings rock material. | Strain distribution; mode-I fracture toughness |
Not reported, 22.7 px/mm, VIC-3D [110] |
| [47] | Three overturned T-beam RC slabs under controlled laboratory conditions. Two of the concrete slabs (0.55 × 3.6 × 9.0 m) were stripped from an in situ full-scale Ot-slab bridge with a 9 m span and one downscaled slab. | Crack identification and assessment. | Two cameras 20-MP, 18.7-MP, 0.69 px/mm–1.72 px/mm, GOM 2D [109] |
| [100] | Double-L shaped RC specimens; shear push-off testing. | Crack kinematics were observed using the full-field strain. | 18-MP, 24-MP, 10.8 px/mm to 11.8 px/mm, GOM 2D [109] |
| [143] | Six ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced and steel rebars reinforced concrete specimens (500 mm long, 100 mm wide, and 50 mm thick) were tested using direct tensile tests. | Full-field displacement and strain; cracking behavior. |
Two 9.1-MP, 13.3 px/mm, Not reported |