TABLE 2.
Postprandial studies investigating the effects of fat dose on vascular function in healthy adults1
| Reference | Study design | Age and BMI of subject group (n) | Meal components | Energy2 (kcal) | Macronutrient composition | FA composition | Parameter of vascular function (h) | Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bae et al. [40] | Parallel | HFM group 56 ± 6 y BMI N/A n = 11 (4 M, 7 F) |
HFM 110 g rice 100 g Korean barbecue 20 g egg, 200 mL milk 8 g oil 25 g mayonnaise 50 g vegetable |
HFM 803 |
HFM 53.4 g (59.9 E%) fat 30.7 g protein 50 g CHO |
Both meals N/A |
FMD (%) Ultrasound, brachial artery (0, 2 h) |
HFM: significant decrease in FMD from baseline (P < 0.005) LFM: no significant postprandial change in FMD HFM, 2 h: significantly lower FMD compared with LFM (P = 0.037) |
| LFM group 56 ± 12 y BMI N/A n = 9 (6 M, 3 F) |
LFM 312 g rice 100 g vegetable soup 200 g vegetable 190 mL orange juice 400 g apple 50 g kimchi |
LFM 802 |
LFM 3 g (3.4 E%) fat 15.7 g protein 178 g CHO |
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| Benson et al. [42] | Crossover | 26 ± 3 y 24.7 ± 3.9 kg/m2n = 10 (10 M, 0 F) |
HFM Milkshake (no further specification) |
Both meals 11.6 kcal/kg BW |
HFM 1 g/kg BW fat 0.15 g/kg protein 0.5 g/kg BW CHO |
Both meals N/A |
FMD (%, controlled for BMI) Ultrasound, brachial artery (0, 4 h) |
HFM: significant decrease in FMD from baseline (P = 0.005) LFM: no significant postprandial change in FMD HFM: significantly greater FMD change compared with LFM (P < 0.05, meal x time interaction P = 0.046) |
| LFM Low-fat, isoenergetic meal (no further specification) |
LFM 0.04 g/kg BW fat 0.28 g/kg BW protein 2.54 g/kg BW CHO |
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| Esser et al. [43] | Crossover Randomized Double-blind |
22 ± 2 y 22.7 ± 2.4 kg/m2n = 20 (20 M, 0 F) |
HFM (500 mL) 53% fresh cream 3% sugar 44% water |
HFM 954 |
HFM 95 g fat 6 g protein 22 g CHO |
HFM 54 g SFA |
FMD (%) Ultrasound, brachial artery (0, 3, 6 h) |
Both meals, 3 h: significant decrease in FMD from baseline (P = 0.004); no significant group difference Both meals, 6 h: FMD returned to baseline |
| LFM (500 mL) 43% full-cream milk 48% full-cream yogurt 4% lemonade 4% fantomalt 1% wheat fiber |
LFM 400 |
LFM 14.5 g fat 17 g protein 49.5 g CHO |
LFM 9 g SFA |
AIx (%, corrected for heart rate) Applanation tonometry, radial artery (SphygmoCor) (0, 3, 6 h) |
Both meals: significant decrease in AIx from baseline (P = 0.012); no significant group difference | |||
| Patik et al. [46] | Crossover Randomized |
24 ± 3 y 24.3 ± 3.8 kg/m2n = 10 (10 M, 0 F) |
HFM 1 egg muffin 1 sausage muffin 2 hash browns 591 mL water |
HFM 990 |
HFM 55 g (50 E%) fat 35 g (14 E%) protein 89 g (36 E%) CHO |
HFM 19 g SFA |
FMD (%) Ultrasound, brachial artery (0, 2, 4 h) |
HFM, 2 h: significant decrease from baseline compared with fasting condition (2 h: P = 0.002, 4 h: P = 0.004) and compared with HFM, 4 h P = 0.001) FMD change from baseline, 4 h: no significant difference between conditions |
| Fasting state 591 mL water |
Fasting state No energy intake |
Fasting state No macronutrient intake |
Fasting state No fat intake |
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| Poitras et al. [44] | Crossover3 Researcher analyzing images was blinded |
23.2 ± 3.3 y 24.4 ± 2.4 kg/m2n = 10 (10 M, 0 F) |
HFM 1 egg muffin 1 sausage muffin 2 hash browns Water |
HFM 1000 |
HFM 54 g fat 32 g protein 94 g CHO |
HFM 16 g SFA 1 g trans fat |
FMD (%) Ultrasound, brachial artery (0, 1, 2, 3, 4 h) |
No significant effect of meal or time on FMD |
| LFM 160 g frosted flakes 500 mL skimmed milk 500 g orange juice |
LFM 990 |
LFM 0 g fat 23 g protein 209 g CHO |
LFM 0 g SFA 0 g trans fat |
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| Tushuizen et al. [45] | Crossover Randomized |
25.4 ± 3 y 23.6 ± 1.8 kg/m2n = 17 (17 M, 0 F) |
HFM: breakfast (0 h) 1 egg muffin 1 croissant with butter and marmalade 200 mL milk 20 mL cream HFM: lunch (4 h) 1 hamburger 1 croissant with butter 200 mL milk |
HFM (each meal) 900 |
HFM (each meal) 50 g fat 30 g protein 55 g CHO |
HFM (each meal) 60 % SFA (of total fat) |
FMD (%) Ultrasound, brachial artery (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 h) |
After lunch, 6 h: significant decrease in FMD from baseline (P < 0.05) Difference in FMD between interventions at 6 h: P = 0.051 |
| Fasting state Water (restricted to a maximum of 50 mL/h) |
Fasting state No energy intake |
Fasting state No macronutrient intake |
Fasting state No fat intake |
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| Williams et al. [47] | Crossover4 Randomized |
38 ± 6 y 24.6 ± 2.9 kg/m2n = 10 (10 M, 0 F) |
HFM (shake) LFM enriched with 46 g unused cooking fat |
HFM 897 |
HFM 64.4 g fat 20.5 g protein 62.5 g CHO |
HFM 30 g SFA 4 g PUFA |
FMD (%) Ultrasound, brachial artery (0, 4 h) |
Both meals: no significant postprandial changes in FMD |
| LFM (shake) 100 g ice cream 200 mL trim milk 50 mL evaporated milk 10 g yogurt 50 g tinned apricots (without syrup) 12 g egg yolk 30 g egg white Chocolate flavor |
LFM 483 |
LFM 18.4 g fat 20.5 g protein 62.5 g CHO |
LFM 8 g SFA 2 g PUFA |
Abbreviations: AIx, augmentation index; BW, body weight; CHO, carbohydrate; E%, energy percentage; FA, fatty acid; FMD, flow-mediated dilation; HFM, high-fat meal; LFM, low-fat meal; N/A, not available.
1
Age and BMI are given as mean ± SD.
2
Data on energy intake in MJ or kJ were converted to kcal (1 kcal = 4.184 kJ = 0.004184 MJ).
3
On 2 additional occasions, participants passed mental stress tasks; methods and results are not stated here.
4
A third test meal was enriched with used cooking fat; meal composition and results are not stated here.