Table 7.

Overview of the Literature on Neurotoxic Effects of TiO₂ NPs in Other Cells

Model System	Particle Size	Exposure Dose	Neurotoxic Effects	Ref.
T98G human glioblastoma cells	786.9 ± 176.7 nm	0, 20 µg/mL	Disrupted BBB integrity, Neuroinflammation	[175]
Primary HBMECs Primary human astrocytes	29.56 ± 10.72 nm	0, 12.5, 25, 50, 100 μg/mL	Stimulated F-actin stress fiber formation, Induced formation of paracellular gaps, Up-regulated ROCK II	[31]
Primary rat glial cells Endothelial cells	25.2 nm	0–500 mg/mL 0–100 mg/mL	Inflammatory response Altered expression of ABC transporter	[174]
DRG cells of chick embryos	25 nm	0, 0.5, 5 μg/mL	Oxidative stress, Promoted inflammation, Cell apoptosis, Altered axonal retrograde transport	[176]
	200–400 nm	0, 250 μg/mL	Cell apoptosis	[177]
Olfactory bulb neurons	≤20 nm	0, 1, 5, 10 mg/mL	Cell apoptosis, Decreased expression of OMP and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)	[178]
HCECs	21 nm	0.12–75 μg/mL	Oxidative stress, Autophagy	[179]
hNSCs	80 nm, < 44 μm	0, 0.01, 0.1, 1.0 mg/mL	Acute membrane permeability	[180]
1C11	22 nm	5, 10, 25, 50 µg/mL	Oxidative stress, Neuroinflammation, Altered neuronal signaling, Altered neuronal homeostasis	[181]

Note: The reported particle size reflects the diameter of primary particles.