Table 1.
Characteristics of included studies.
| Author, year | Country | Size, n | Male/female, n | Mean age (years) | Ault or minor | Study design | Duration | Health status of participants | Intervention group | Control group | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Geliebter 2014 | USA | 36 | 18/18 | 33.4 ± 6.5 | Adult | Randomized, controlled parallel-arm | 1 month | Healthy | Consumption of oat porridge, frosted cornflakes within 15 min at 8:30 | Breakfast skipping | Weight; waist; waist:hip ratio; SBP; DBP; HDL-C; LDL-C; TC; TG; fasting glucose; HOMA-IR |
| Neumann 2016 | USA | 24 | 0/24 | 24.1 ± 2 | Adult | Randomized, controlled | 8 days | Healthy | Consumption of protein-based breakfast or carbohydrate-based breakfast | Breakfast skipping | Weight; BMI |
| Goff 2019 | UK | 665 | 329/336 | 22.7 | Minor and adult | Cohort | 10 years | Healthy | Consumption of regular breakfast | Breakfast skipping | BMI; waist:hip ratio; SBP; HDL-C; TC; HbA1c |
| Kobayashi 2013 | Japan | 8 | 8/0 | 25.3 ± 1.2 | Adult | Randomized, crossover | 2 days | Healthy | Consumption of meals at predetermined time: breakfast (8:00), lunch (12:00), and supper (19:00) | Breakfast skipping, lunch (12:00), and supper (19:00) | Fasting glucose |
| Zhang 2017 | USA | 178 | 48/130 | 52.2 | Adult | Randomized, controlled | 1 year | Metabolic syndrome | Consumption of regular breakfast | Breakfast skipping | Weight; BMI; waist; SBP; DBP; HDL-C; LDL-C; TC; TG; HbA1c; fasting glucose; HOMA-IR |
| Schlundt 1992 | USA | 38 | 0/38 | 18–55 | Adult | Randomized | 3 months | Obesity | Consumption of breakfast (1,672 kJ), lunch (1,254 kJ), and supper (2,090 kJ) | Consumption of lunch (1,254 kJ) and supper (2,090 kJ) without breakfast | Weight |
| Leidy 2015 | USA | 54 | 22/32 | 19 ± 1 | Adult | Randomized, controlled | 3 months | Overweight, obesity | Consumption of 1,464 kJ breakfast (13 g protein) or a high-protein breakfast (35 g protein) | Breakfast skipping | Weight, BMI |
| LeCheminant 2016 | USA | 49 | 0/49 | 23.7 ± 6.8 | Adult | Randomized, controlled | 1 month | Healthy | Consumption of at least 15% of daily energy requirement before 8:30 | Without consuming any energy until 11:30 | Weight, BMI |
| Chowdhury 2016 | UK | 23 | 8/15 | 44 ± 10 | Adult | Randomized, controlled | 6 weeks | Obesity | Consumption of daily breakfast (at least 700 kcal) | Extended fasting (0 kcal until 12:00) | Weight; BMI; waist; waist:hip ratio; HDL-C; LDL-C; TC; TG; fasting glucose; HOMA-IR |
| Betts 2014 | UK | 33 | 12/21 | 36 ± 11 | Adult | Randomized, controlled | 6 weeks | Healthy | Consumption of daily breakfast (at least 700 kcal) | Extended fasting (0 kcal until 12:00) | Weight; BMI; waist; waist:hip ratio; SBP; DBP; HDL-C; LDL-C; TC; TG; fasting glucose; HOMA-IR |
| Farshchi 2005 | UK | 10 | 0/10 | 25.5 ± 5.7 | Adult | Randomized, crossover | 1 month | Healthy | Consumption breakfast cereal with 2% fat milk before 8:00 | Breakfast skipping | Weight; BMI; waist; waist:hip ratio; HDL-C; LDL-C; TC; TG; fasting glucose |