Table 1.
Clinical and metabolic characteristics of the study population according to UACR and eGFR
| Controls (n = 40) | A-DKD (n = 41) | NA-DKD (n = 41) | AL-DKD (n = 38) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age, years | 63.45 ± 7.56 | 62.78 ± 7.15 | 68.19 ± 6.30*† | 69.56 ± 4.91*† |
| Sex, no. (%) of females | 27 (67) | 37 (90)* | 27 (66)† | 30 (79) |
| Active smokers, no. (%) | 11 (27) | 19 (46) | 10 (24)† | 10 (26) |
| History of CVD§, no. (%) | 7 (17) | 12 (29) | 7 (17) | 17 (45)*‡ |
| BMI, kg/m2 | 28.73 ± 5.26 | 30.48 ± 5.20 | 27.69 ± 3.09† | 27.72 ± 3.79† |
| SBP, mmHg | 132.62 ± 15.97 | 132.75 ± 11.38 | 132.75 ± 11.38 | 136.36 ± 8.13 |
| DBP, mmHg | 77.75 ± 9.80 | 81.87 ± 12.44 | 78.00 ± 8.15 | 77.23 ± 8.58 |
| HbA1c, % (mmol/mol) | 7.2 ± 1.3 (56 ± 14) | 7.5 ± 1.5 (58 ± 16) | 6.8 ± 0.9† (51 ± 10)† | 7.1 ± 1.2 (54 ± 14) |
| Fasting glucose, mg/dL | 135.82 ± 39.53 | 136.76 ± 36.53 | 128.58 ± 49.92 | 125.94 ± 34.99 |
| eGFR, mL/min/1,73 m2 | 91.38 ± 14.35 | 90.65 ± 11.57 | 50.78 ± 7.93*† | 48.95 ± 14.05*† |
| UACR, mg/g | 11 (8.5–16.5) | 66 (45–279.5)* | 11 (7–17)† | 93 (47.5 – 284.5)*† |
| Total cholesterol, mg/dL | 160.87 ± 39.76 | 149.66 ± 29.78 | 144.27 ± 30.81* | 156.15 ± 36.55 |
| HDL cholesterol, mg/dL | 47.77 ± 12.51 | 45.83 ± 13.10 | 43.56 ± 10.91 | 48.23 ± 11.75 |
| LDL cholesterol, mg/dL | 88.44 ± 33.13 | 80.52 ± 28.37 | 74.78 ± 26.05 | 79.22 ± 37.34 |
| Triglycerides, mg/dL | 104 (82–162.5) | 104 (86.75–147) | 105 (81–156) | 133 (111–175) |
| Medications | ||||
| Metformin, no. (%) | 39 (97) | 37 (90) | 25 (61)*† | 23 (61)*† |
| Insulin, no. (%) | 13 (33) | 14 (34) | 14 (34) | 19 (50) |
| SGLT2 inhibitors, no. (%) | 8 (20) | 15 (37) | 17 (41)* | 20 (53)* |
| DPP4 inhibitors, no. (%) | 4 (10) | 1 (2) | 4 (10) | 4 (11) |
| GLP1-RAs, no. (%) | 18 (45) | 19 (46) | 24 (59) | 16 (42) |
| Sulphonylureas, no. (%) | 2 (5) | - | 2 (6) | - |
| Antithrombotics, no. (%) | 25 (63) | 23 (56) | 24 (59) | 16 (42) |
| Statins, no. (%) | 26 (65) | 35 (85)* | 32 (78) | 29 (76) |
| ACE-i/ARBs, no. (%) | 23 (57) | 30 (73) | 32 (78)* | 29 (76) |
Data are presented as mean ± SD, median (IQR), or percentage. A-DKD: albuminuric diabetic kidney disease (UACR ≥ 30 mg/g and eGFR ≥ 60 mL/min/1.63 m2); NA-DKD: non-albuminuric diabetic kidney disease (UACR < 30 mg/g and eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.63 m2); AL-DKD: albuminuric and low estimated glomerular filtration rate diabetic kidney disease (UACR ≥ 30 mg/g and eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.63 m2); CVD: cardiovascular disease; BMI: body mass index; SBP: systolic blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; eGFR: estimated glomerular filtration rate; UACR: urinary albumin to creatine ratio; SGLT2: sodium-glucose transporter 2; DPP4: dipeptidyl-peptidase 4; GLP1-RAs: glucagon like peptide 1—receptor agonists. ACE-i: angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors; ARBs: Angiotensin receptor blockers. §history of CVD includes myocardial infarction, stroke, and peripheral artery disease. *P < 0.05 versus group A; †P < 0.05 versus group B; ‡P < 0.05 versus group C