TABLE 3.
Antiviral compounds in HM
| HM Antiviral compound |
In vitro activity | In vivo activity | Mechanism of action | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Oligosaccharides (HMOs) | Norovirus, HRoV, FluV, HIV, Calicivirus | FluV, HRoV, Norovirus, HIV | Decoy receptor; binding inhibition; | [[307], [308], [309], [310], [311], [312], [313], [314], [315], [316], [317], [318], [319], [320], [321], [322], [323],360] |
| Glycosaminoglycans (HM-GAGs) | HIV, RSV, HCMV, ZIKV, USUV | / | Binding inhibition | [[324], [325], [326], [327],361] |
| Lactoferrin (Lf) | HRoV, HIV, HCMV, RSV, HSV-1, HSV-2, HBV, HCV, HGV, Poliovirus, ADV, EV71, Echovirus 6, SARS-CoV-2 | HCV | Inhibition of viral adsorption and entry; inhibitory activity toward HIV-1 RT; binding of HCV envelop protein; | [325,[328], [329], [330], [331], [332], [333], [334], [335], [336], [337], [338], [339], [340], [341], [342], [343],362,363] |
| Lactadherine | HRoV | HRoV | Inhibition of HRV binding to cells | [[344], [345], [346],364] |
| Mucins | HIV, poxvirus, Norwalk virus, HRoV, SARS-CoV-2 | / | MUC1 binds the DC-SIGN receptor, blocking HIV-1 DCs infection—binding inhibition, entry inhibition | [343,[347], [348], [349], [350], [351],365] |
| Oxysterols | HRoV, HRV | / | / | [366] |
| Tenascin-C (TNC) | HIV-1 | / | Interaction with the HIV-1 Envelope (Env) variable 3 (V3) loop | [[367], [368], [369]] |
| Lipid compounds | ZIKV, HCV, VSV, HSV, DENV, JEV | / | Virucidal activity; alteration of the viral envelope | [83,[352], [353], [354],370] |
| Extracellular vesicles (HM-EVs) | HIV, HCMV, RSV, HRoV, ZIKV, USUV | / | Competition with HIV-1 for binding to DC-SIGN on MDDCs; inhibition of HCMV attachment; inhibition of RSV and HRoV entry | [327,355,356,371] |
| Secretory leucocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) | HIV | / | / | [357] |
| Lewis X | HIV | / | Binding inhibition | [358] |
| β-Lactoglobulin | HIV | / | Partial inhibition of HIV integrase and reverse transcriptase activity | [339,359] |
| α-Lactalbumin | SARS-CoV-2 | / | Inhibition of viral attachment and entry | [291] |
ADNV, Andes virus; ADV, Adenovirus; EV71, enterovirus 71; CVB3, coxsackievirus B3; DENV, dengue virus; EBOV, Ebola virus; FluV, influenza virus; HAV, hepatitis A virus; HBV, hepatitis B virus; HCMW, Human cytomegalovirus; HCV, hepatitis C virus; HEV, hepatitis E virus; HGV, hepatitis G virus; HM, human milk; HPV, human papilloma virus; HRoV, human rotavirus; HSV-1/HSV-2, Herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2; HTLV-I/HTLV-II, human T-lymphotropic virus; JEV, Japanese encephalitis virus; RSV, respiratory syncytial virus; RuV, Rubella virus; SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; TTV, TT virus; USUV, Usutu virus; VZV, Varicella-zoster virus; WNV, West Nile virus; YFV, Yellow fever virus; ZIKV, Zika virus.
Notes: References include English articles with full-text available. In vitro and in vivo studies were considered. Only articles that have analyzed the antiviral activity of native compounds, that is, directly extracted from HM, have been included in this study. Articles that analyzed the antiviral properties of synthetic HM compounds or compounds modified by medicinal chemistry techniques have been excluded.