Figure 1. Difference between glycolysis mechanisms in cancer cells and normal cells.

(A) In the presence of oxygen, normal cells use the glycolysis, TCA cycle, and electron transport system to create up to 38 ATPs of carbon dioxide for every glucose molecule. Pyruvates build up in a hypoxic environment without going through the TCA cycle. The muscle tissue's stored pyruvates are transformed into lactic acid, but only two ATPs are generated as a result (short period). (B) Cancer cells only use the glycolysis process, whether oxygen is present or not; two ATPs are produced from each glucose molecule, and more glucose is needed to provide energy in comparison to normal cells [21]

Note: Image sourced from "Regulation of cancer metabolism by deubiquitinating enzymes: the Warburg effect," by Kim SH and Baek KH, 2021, Int J Mol Sci, 22(12), 6173 [21] under Creative Commons Attribution License CC BY 4.0

MCT, monocarboxylate transporter; LDHA, lactate dehydrogenase A; ATPs, adenosine triphosphates, TCA, tricarboxylic acid, O₂, oxygen; CO₂, carbon dioxide