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. 2023 Dec 15;13:22325. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-49830-7

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Evolutionary model of Panax species. (A) Estimated divergence times for Panax species with information on their distribution and ploidy level. The predicted climate for the most recent 20 million years and the curve were modified from Zachos et al.⁵¹. (B) Supplementary hypothesis involving two-stage migration of Panax to North America: (1) migration of ancestral diploid Panax through floristic exchange and (2) migration of tetraploid Panax mediated by recurrent glaciations. The map indicating the distribution areas of Panax species was downloaded from MapChart (https://www.mapchart.net/). SE: southeastern; S.: southern; NE: northeastern; W.: western; N.: north; Pl.: Pliocene; P.: Pleistocene.