Abstract
Objective
Social media use has become ubiquitous among schoolchildren. This study examined the association of social media use and posting regret with self-esteem among middle and high school students, and tested whether school type (i.e., middle vs. high school) could moderate these associations.
Methods
Data on 6944 schoolchildren (mean age: 15.2 ± 1.8 years) were derived from the 2019 cycle of the Ontario Student Drug Use and Health Survey, a biennial repeated cross-sectional survey of students in grades 7 through 12 across Ontario, Canada. Students self-reported time spent using social media, regret of posting on social media, and their self-esteem. Ordinal logistic regression analyses were adjusted for age, sex, subjective socioeconomic status, ethnoracial background, and body mass index z-score.
Results
The proportional odds model showed that middle (OR: 2.36; 95% CI: 1.65–3.36) and high school (OR: 1.72; 95% CI: 1.44–2.06) students with daily social media use of 5 h or more have higher odds of lower self-esteem across the categories of self-esteem. However, daily use of 3 to 4 h was associated with lower self-esteem among middle school students (OR: 1.52; 95% CI: 1.14–2.04), but not among their high school counterparts (OR: 1.13; 95% CI: 0.94–1.35). Posting regret was associated with lower self-esteem in high school students, but not in middle school students.
Conclusion
Results suggest that heavy social media use and posting regret are associated with lower self-esteem among adolescents, and that younger students could be more vulnerable than their older counterparts.
Keywords: Social media, Social networking sites, Self-esteem, Schoolchildren, Adolescents, Public health
Résumé
Objectif
L’utilisation des médias sociaux est devenue omniprésente chez les écoliers. Cette étude a examiné l’association entre l’utilisation des médias sociaux et les regrets liés à l’affichage et l’estime de soi chez les élèves de niveau intermédiaire et secondaire, et a vérifié si le niveau scolaire (c’est-à-dire intermédiaire comparé au secondaire) pouvait modérer ces associations.
Méthodes
Les données concernant 6 944 écoliers (âge moyen : 15,2 ± 1,8 ans) proviennent du cycle 2019 de l’Enquête sur la consommation de drogues et la santé des élèves de l’Ontario, une enquête transversale répétée de façon bisannuelle menée auprès des élèves de la 7e à la 12e année dans l’ensemble de l’Ontario, au Canada. Les élèves ont déclaré eux-mêmes le temps passé à utiliser les médias sociaux, le regret de publier sur les médias sociaux et leur estime de soi. Les analyses de régression logistique ordinale ont été ajustées en fonction de l’âge, du sexe, du statut socioéconomique subjectif, de l’origine ethnoraciale et du score z de l’indice de masse corporelle.
Résultats
Le modèle des cotes proportionnelles a montré que les élèves des écoles intermédiaires (RC : 2,36; IC à 95% : 1,65–3,36) et secondaires (RC : 1,72; IC à 95% : 1,44–2,06) qui utilisent quotidiennement les médias sociaux pendant 5 heures ou plus sont plus susceptibles d’avoir une faible estime de soi dans toutes les catégories de l’estime de soi. Cependant, une utilisation quotidienne de 3 à 4 heures était associée à une plus faible estime de soi chez les élèves de niveau intermédiaire (RC : 1,52; IC à 95% : 1,14–2,04), mais pas chez leurs homologues du secondaire (RC : 1,13; IC à 95% : 0,94–1,35). Le fait d’avoir des regrets était associé à une plus faible estime de soi chez les élèves du secondaire, mais pas chez ceux du niveau intermédiaire.
Conclusion
Les résultats suggèrent que l’utilisation intensive des médias sociaux et les regrets liés à l’affichage sont associés à une faible estime de soi chez les adolescents, et que les jeunes élèves pourraient être plus vulnérables que leurs homologues plus âgés.
Mots-clés: Médias sociaux, sites de réseaux sociaux, estime de soi, écoliers, adolescents, santé publique
Introduction
Self-esteem is often seen as the evaluation that persons make about themselves that expresses a self-judgement of approval, disapproval, and personal worth (Rosenberg, 2015; Suls, 1989). It plays a vital role in adolescent development (Suls, 1989; Zimmerman et al., 1997). Research has shown that lower self-esteem in adolescence is associated with the development of mental health problems and multiple health-compromising behaviours during this transitional phase of growth and development (Masselink et al., 2018; McGee & Williams, 2000). It is therefore important to identify the factors associated with lower self-esteem among adolescents to better inform prevention and intervention efforts.
One factor that has been receiving more attention over the past decade is social media use (Cingel et al., 2022; Krause et al., 2021; Saiphoo et al., 2020). Social media involve a web-based platform where users can create a profile, post pictures and videos, share contact information and personal interests, and build up a network with other people. Despite potential benefits, social media use has been associated with mental health problems, particularly internalizing problems (Riehm et al., 2019; Sampasa-Kanyinga & Hamilton, 2015; Sampasa-Kanyinga & Lewis, 2015). However, existing research examining the association of social media use on self-esteem has not been conclusive. Some studies have found that social media use is negatively associated with self-esteem (Woods & Scott, 2016), others have found that social media may be positively associated with self-esteem (Blomfield Neira & Barber, 2014), whereas others found null findings (Košir et al., 2016). Some authors have argued that inconsistencies across studies could be explained by the fact that the relationship between social media use and self-esteem might be person-specific and based on individual susceptibilities and uses (Cingel et al., 2022; Valkenburg et al., 2021a). From their meta-analysis based on 121 independent samples, Saiphoo et al. (2020) found a small, negative, and significant relationship between social media use and self-esteem. However, there is still more to learn at the population level of adolescents. For example, little is known about the factors that could moderate this association. The association between social media use and self-esteem may vary between middle (i.e., grades 7 and 8) and high (i.e., grades 9 through 12) school students because students in middle school are younger, and their brains are still at an earlier stage of development compared to those in high schools. Therefore, they might be more vulnerable to the negative effects of social media use than their older counterparts.
Disclosing too much personal information on social media and crossing the privacy boundary can easily lead to regret. Research has shown that posting something that could be associated with regret is common among adolescents (Madden et al., 2013; Xie & Kang, 2015); however, this has received little attention from researchers (Rash & Gainsbury, 2019). Most of the existing research has focused on college students and adults. Studies looking into this phenomenon among adolescents are sparse. Xie and Kang (2015) found that heavy social media use, large social media network size, and having strangers on social media friend list were associated with increased self-disclosure and posting regret in a sample of 622 adolescent social media users in the United States. To the best of our knowledge, no studies have specifically examined the direct association between posting regret and low self-esteem at the population level of adolescents. Moreover, age has been indicated to play an essential role in overall posting regret (Xie & Kang, 2015). However, it is largely unknown whether the association between posting regret and low self-esteem varies between middle and high school students. Middle school students may be more prone to posting regret than their older counterparts for the above-stated reasons, including their immaturity and potential vulnerability.
Thus, the primary objective of this study was to examine the association between social media use and self-esteem among middle and high school students and to test whether school type (i.e., middle vs. high school) could moderate this association. Secondarily, we explored the association between posting regret and self-esteem. It is hypothesized that the association of heavy social media use and posting regret with lower self-esteem would be stronger among middle school students than among those in high school.
Methods
Design
The Ontario Student Drug Use and Health Survey (OSDUHS) is a province-wide survey of Ontario students in grades 7 through 12 (Boak et al., 2020). The OSDUHS is the longest ongoing school survey in Canada and one of the longest in the world. It is a self-administered, anonymous survey conducted across the province every 2 years to identify epidemiological trends in student drug use, mental health, physical health, gambling, bullying, and other risk behaviours, as well as identifying risk and protective factors. It takes approximately 20 to 25 min for students to complete the online questionnaire. The survey sample is considered representative of all students in grades 7–12 in publicly funded schools in Ontario (almost one million students) and is based on a stratified two-stage (school, class) cluster design. The 2019 cycle included a sample of 14,142 students from 42 school boards, 263 schools, and 992 classrooms in Ontario, with a student participation rate of 59%. Students did not participate due to absenteeism (12%), parental refusal, or unreturned consent forms (29%). The present analyses are based on a random half-sample of 7617 students who completed Form A, which contains the self-esteem item. Information on the study design and methods is described in greater detail elsewhere (Boak et al., 2020). Research ethics approval was obtained from the Research Ethics Boards of the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health and York University. Active parental consent and student assent were required to participate.
Measures
Self-esteem was measured using a question that asked participants how much they agreed with the following statement: “On the whole, I am satisfied with myself”. Response options included “strongly agree”, “somewhat agree”, “somewhat disagree”, and “strongly disagree”. Response options were treated as an ordinal variable ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 4 (strongly disagree), where higher scores indicate lower self-esteem. This item was obtained from the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale.
Social media use was measured using the following item: “About how many hours a day do you usually spend on social media sites or apps, such as Instagram, Snapchat, Twitter, Facebook, either posting or browsing?”. Response options included “Less than 1 h a day”, “About 1 h a day”, “2 h a day”, “3 to 4 h a day”, “5 to 6 h a day”, and “7 or more hours a day”, “Use social media, but not every day”, “Use the Internet, but don’t use social media”, and “Don’t use the Internet”. A three-category measure was constructed to represent a daily use of no more than 2 h, daily use of 3 to 4 h, and daily use of 5 h or more. Heavy social media use was defined as a daily use of 5 h or more. The “daily use of no more than 2 h” category is particularly important because current public health guidelines recommend that youth aged 5 to 17 years accumulate no more than 2 h of recreational screen time per day (Tremblay et al., 2016). Given that students who do not use social media or use them infrequently may be different from those who use them on a daily basis for no more than 2 h per day, a sensitivity analysis was conducted using a 4-category measure representing infrequent or no use of social media, daily use of no more than 2 h, daily use of 3 to 4 h, and daily use of 5 h or more.
Posting regret was assessed using the following measure: “If you use social media, have you ever posted personal information, a photo, or a video of yourself that you wish you had not posted?”. Response options included “Don’t use social media”, “Yes, I’ve posted something personal that I later wished I had not posted”, and “No, I’ve never posted something personal that I later wished I had not posted”. The variable was treated as a dichotomous variable, representing the presence and absence of posting regret.
Covariates included age (years), sex (male/female), ethnoracial background (white/Black/East and South-East Asian/South Asian/Other), subjective socioeconomic status (SES), and body mass index (BMI) z-score. Subjective SES was measured using a modified version of the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status (Goodman et al., 2001) and was treated as a scale variable ranging from 1 to 10. BMI was calculated from self-reported measures of height and weight, and age- and sex-specific BMI z-scores were calculated using reference data from the World Health Organization (2011). It was treated as a continuous variable.
Statistical analysis
All analyses accounted for the weighting and complex sampling design employed by the OSDUHS within Stata (version 16.1, Stata Corp., College Station, TX). Item nonresponse was less than 2% for each of the independent variables; thus, missing data were handled using listwise deletion, reducing the sample size from 7617 to 6944 participants. Students with missing data were significantly more likely than those with complete information to be younger, males, and of Black ethnoracial background. Characteristics of the sample were summarized using descriptive statistics, including proportion, mean, and median. Differences between middle (i.e., grades 7 and 8) and high (i.e., grades 9 through 12) school students were performed using a Pearson chi-square adjusted for the survey design and transformed into an F-statistic for categorical data and by an adjusted Wald test for continuous data. Two-way interaction between social media use and school type was examined to test whether the association between social media use and self-esteem varies between middle and high school students. Given that interaction was significant, all subsequent analyses were stratified by school type. Univariable and multivariable ordinal logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine the association of social media use and posting regret with self-esteem. Covariates included age, sex, ethnoracial background, subjective SES, and BMI z-score. Covariates were selected based on their associations with social media use and self-esteem in the literature and their availability in the dataset. Ordinal logistic regression was deemed appropriate after the Brant test indicated that the assumption of proportional odds was not violated (Liu, 2009). Both unadjusted (Model 1) and adjusted (Model 2) odds ratios (OR) and their 95% confidence intervals (CI) were reported. The regression model examining the association between social media use and self-esteem was further adjusted for posting regret (Model 3) to assess whether this association is independent of posting regret.
Results
Sample characteristics are outlined in Table 1. Of the 6944 students who were included in our analyses, the majority were in high school (78.1%; mean age: 15.9 years). Nearly half were females (49.5%) and identified themselves as white (50.9%). Overall, most students agreed that they were satisfied with themselves (72.6%). Middle school students (mean age: 12.7 years) were more likely to report higher levels of subjective SES than their high school counterparts. They were also more likely than those in high school to strongly agree that they were satisfied with themselves (38.5% vs. 26.4%, respectively).
Table 1.
Sample characteristics
| Total sample (N = 6944) |
Middle school (N = 2003) |
High school (N = 4941) |
p-valuea | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total (%) | 100 | 21.9 | 78.1 | |
| Age (years) | ||||
| Mean (SD) (min: 11; max: 20) | 15.2 (1.8) | 12.7 (0.8) | 15.9 (1.2) | < 0.001 |
| Sex | ||||
| Females | 49.5 | 49.6 | 49.4 | 0.925 |
| Males | 50.5 | 50.4 | 50.6 | |
| Grades | ||||
| 7 | 10.9 | 49.5 | – | |
| 8 | 11.1 | 50.5 | ||
| 9 | 18.1 | 23.2 | ||
| 10 | 19.0 | 24.3 | ||
| 11 | 18.6 | 23.9 | ||
| 12 | 22.4 | 28.6 | ||
| Ethnoracial background | ||||
| White | 50.9 | 46.3 | 52.2 | 0.062 |
| Black | 9.6 | 10.3 | 9.4 | |
| East/South-East Asian | 13.9 | 12.0 | 14.4 | |
| South Asian | 9.0 | 12.3 | 8.1 | |
| Other | 16.6 | 19.1 | 15.9 | |
| Subjective socioeconomic status | ||||
| Mean (SD) (min: 1; max: 10) | 6.9 (1.7) | 7.2 (1.8) | 6.9 (1.6) | < 0.001 |
| BMI z-score | ||||
| Mean (SD) | 0.3 (1.1) | 0.3 (1.3) | 0.3 (1.1) | 0.876 |
| Posting regret | ||||
| No | 72.1 | 74.1 | 71.5 | 0.1449 |
| Yes | 27.9 | 25.9 | 28.5 | |
| Self-esteem | ||||
| Strongly agree | 29.1 | 38.5 | 26.4 | < 0.001 |
| Somewhat agree | 43.5 | 40.0 | 44.5 | |
| Somewhat disagree | 18.0 | 14.0 | 19.2 | |
| Strongly disagree | 9.4 | 7.4 | 9.9 | |
| Median (min: 1; max: 4) | 2.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | |
Data are shown as weighted column %, unless otherwise indicated. BMI, body mass index; SD, standard deviation
ap-value of differences between middle and high school students
Figure 1 displays the prevalence of social media use among middle and high school students. Overall, 19.4% of students used social media for more than 5 h per day, 28.5% used them for 3 to 4 h per day, and 52% used them for no more than 2 h per day. High school students were more likely than middle school students to use social media for a longer duration daily.
Fig. 1.
Prevalence of social media use among middle and high school students (N = 6944)
Results of ordinal logistic regression analyses examining the association between social media use and low self-esteem stratified by school type are summarized in Table 2 (middle school students) and Table 3 (high school students). After adjusting for important covariates (Model 2), the proportional odds model showed that middle (OR: 2.36; 95% CI: 1.65–3.36) and high school (OR: 1.72; 95% CI: 1.44–2.06) students with daily social media use of 5 h or more have higher odds of lower self-esteem across the categories of self-esteem. However, daily use of 3 to 4 h was associated with lower self-esteem among middle school students (OR: 1.52; 95% CI: 1.14–2.04), but not among their high school counterparts (OR: 1.13; 95% CI: 0.94–1.35). Results further indicated that these associations are independent of posting regret (Model 3).
Table 2.
Association between social media use and lower self-esteem among middle school students (N = 2003)
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OR (95% CI) | p-value | OR (95% CI) | p-value | OR (95% CI) | p-value | |
| Social media use | ||||||
| 2 h or less | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| 3 to 4 h | 1.86 (1.40–2.46) | < 0.001 | 1.52 (1.14–2.04) | 0.005 | 1.55 (1.16–2.06) | 0.003 |
| 5 h or more | 3.01 (2.17–4.17) | < 0.001 | 2.36 (1.65–3.36) | < 0.001 | 2.40 (1.68–3.44) | < 0.001 |
| Age | 1.33 (1.11–1.60) | 0.003 | 1.19 (0.98–1.44) | 0.085 | 1.19 (0.98–1.45) | 0.086 |
| Sex | ||||||
| Females | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Males | 0.37 (0.30–0.47) | < 0.001 | 0.36 (0.29–0.46) | < 0.001 | 0.36 (0.29–0.46) | < 0.001 |
| Ethnoracial background | ||||||
| White | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Black | 1.12 (0.75–1.68) | 0.571 | 0.98 (0.66–1.44) | 0.914 | 0.98 (0.66–1.45) | 0.916 |
| East/South-East Asian | 1.33 (0.85–2.08) | 0.205 | 1.16 (0.72–1.86) | 0.539 | 1.16 (0.73–1.86) | 0.523 |
| South Asian | 0.93 (0.62–1.38) | 0.709 | 0.87 (0.59–1.28) | 0.479 | 0.87 (0.59–1.28) | 0.465 |
| Other | 1.20 (0.86–1.68) | 0.277 | 0.96 (0.67–1.36) | 0.795 | 0.96 (0.68–1.36) | 0.802 |
| Subjective socioeconomic status | 0.69 (0.64–0.75) | < 0.001 | 0.69 (0.64–0.75) | < 0.001 | 0.69 (0.64–0.75) | < 0.001 |
| BMI z-score | 1.19 (1.08–1.30) | < 0.001 | 1.12 (1.03–1.22) | 0.012 | 1.12 (1.03–1.22) | 0.011 |
| Posting regret | ||||||
| No | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Yes | 1.09 (0.85–1.40) | 0.509 | 1.21 (0.93–1.56) | 0.155 | ||
OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; BMI, body mass index
Model 1 is unadjusted; Model 2 is adjusted for age, sex, ethnoracial background, subjective socioeconomic status, and BMI z-score. Model 3 includes Model 2 + posting regret
Table 3.
Association between social media use and lower self-esteem among high school students (N = 4941)
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OR (95% CI) | p-value | OR (95% CI) | p-value | OR (95% CI) | p-value | |
| Social media use | ||||||
| 2 h or less | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| 3 to 4 h | 1.25 (1.07–1.47) | 0.006 | 1.13 (0.94–1.35) | 0.195 | 1.13 (0.94–1.36) | 0.186 |
| 5 h or more | 2.06 (1.76–2.41) | < 0.001 | 1.72 (1.44–2.06) | < 0.001 | 1.68 (1.39–2.01) | < 0.001 |
| Age | 1.07 (1.02–1.12) | 0.008 | 1.07 (1.01–1.13) | 0.026 | 1.06 (1.00–1.12) | 0.045 |
| Sex | ||||||
| Females | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Males | 0.44 (0.38–0.51) | < 0.001 | 0.43 (0.37–0.50) | < 0.001 | 0.44 (0.38–0.51) | < 0.001 |
| Ethnoracial background | ||||||
| White | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
| Black | 0.74 (0.61–0.91) | 0.004 | 0.57 (0.44–0.74) | < 0.001 | 0.58 (0.45–0.75) | < 0.001 |
| East/South-East Asian | 1.51 (1.24–1.84) | < 0.001 | 1.44 (1.20–1.74) | < 0.001 | 1.42 (1.19–1.71) | < 0.001 |
| South Asian | 1.06 (0.85–1.34) | 0.583 | 1.14 (0.93–1.39) | 0.220 | 1.14 (0.93–1.40) | 0.216 |
| Other | 0.95 (0.77–1.17) | 0.610 | 0.89 (0.73–1.08) | 0.221 | 0.88 (0.73–1.06) | 0.184 |
| Subjective socioeconomic status | 0.75 (0.71–0.78) | < 0.001 | 0.75 (0.72–0.78) | < 0.001 | 0.75 (0.72–0.78) | < 0.001 |
| BMI z-score | 1.14 (1.05–1.23) | 0.001 | 1.18 (1.10–1.27) | < 0.001 | 1.18 (1.10–1.27) | < 0.001 |
| Posting regret | ||||||
| No | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Yes | 1.51 (1.30–1.76) | < 0.001 | 1.26 (1.09–1.46) | 0.002 | ||
OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; BMI, body mass index
Model 1 is unadjusted; Model 2 is adjusted for age, sex, ethnoracial background, subjective socioeconomic status, and BMI z-score. Model 3 includes Model 2 + posting regret
Table 4 outlines the results of the univariable and multivariable ordered logistic regression models examining the association between posting regret and low self-esteem. After adjusting for important covariates, posting regret was also associated with lower self-esteem in high school students (OR: 1.51; 95% CI: 1.30–1.76) across categories of self-esteem, but not in middle school students (OR: 1.09; 95% CI: 0.85–1.40).
Table 4.
Association between posting regret and lower self-esteem among middle and high school students (N = 6944)
| Middle school students (N = 2003) |
High school students (N = 4941) |
|||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| OR (95% CI) | p-value | OR (95% CI) | p-value | |
| Unadjusted | ||||
| Posting regret | ||||
| No | 1 | 1 | ||
| Yes | 1.09 (0.85–1.40) | 0.509 | 1.51 (1.30–1.76) | < 0.001 |
| Adjusted | ||||
| Posting regret | ||||
| No | 1 | 1 | ||
| Yes | 1.13 (0.87–1.47) | 0.361 | 1.32 (1.14–1.53) | < 0.001 |
| Age | 1.26 (1.02–1.54) | 0.029 | 1.06 (1.00–1.12) | 0.050 |
| Sex | ||||
| Females | 1 | 1 | ||
| Males | 0.34 (0.27–0.43) | < 0.001 | 0.41 (0.36–0.48) | < 0.001 |
| Ethnoracial background | ||||
| White | 1 | 1 | ||
| Black | 1.02 (0.51–0.81) | 0.906 | 0.62 (0.48–0.80) | < 0.001 |
| East/South-East Asian | 1.27 (0.79–2.04) | 0.318 | 1.45 (1.20–1.74) | < 0.001 |
| South Asian | 0.87 (0.59–1.28) | 0.480 | 1.14 (0.93–1.40) | 0.207 |
| Other | 0.97 (0.69–1.37) | 0.875 | 0.88 (0.73–1.06) | 0.187 |
| Subjective socioeconomic status | 0.69 (0.64–0.74) | < 0.001 | 0.75 (0.72–0.78) | < 0.001 |
| BMI z-score | 1.13 (1.04–1.24) | 0.006 | 1.18 (1.10–1.27) | < 0.001 |
OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; BMI, body mass index
Results from the sensitivity analysis treating social media use as a 4-category measure (infrequent or no use of social media, daily use of no more than 2 h, daily use of 3 to 4 h, and daily use of 5 h or more) showed similar associations. Compared to infrequent or no social media use, daily social media use of 5 h or more was associated with greater odds of lower self-esteem in middle (OR: 2.39; 95% CI: 1.61–3.55) and high school (OR: 1.74; 95% CI: 1.24–2.46) students across categories of self-esteem. However, daily use of 3 to 4 h was associated with lower self-esteem among middle school students (OR: 1.54; 95% CI: 1.10–2.16), but not among their high school counterparts (OR: 1.14; 95% CI: 0.85–1.53). Daily social media use of no more than 2 h was not associated with lower self-esteem in either middle school students (OR: 1.03; 95% CI: 0.82–1.29) or high school students (OR: 1.01; 95% CI: 0.72–1.43).
Discussion
We examined the association between social media use and self-esteem among middle and high school students and tested whether school type (i.e., middle vs. high school) could moderate this association in a large and representative sample of Ontario (Canada) students. Our findings indicate that heavy social media use was associated with greater odds of lower self-esteem and that this association was independent of posting regret. More specifically, results showed that daily social media use of 5 h or more was more strongly associated with lower self-esteem among middle school students than among high school students. Moreover, daily use of 3 to 4 h was associated with lower self-esteem among middle school students but not among their high school counterparts. Findings also indicated that posting regret was associated with lower self-esteem in high school students, but not in middle school students.
Although high school students were more likely than those in middle school to use social media for a longer time, the association between heavy social media use and self-esteem was stronger among middle school students than among high school students. These findings suggest that middle school students might be more vulnerable to the adverse effects of social media use than high school students. Social comparison and appearance comparison occurring on social media are very common among adolescents (Fardouly & Vartanian, 2015; Scully et al., 2020). Research has shown that a negative perception on their own social and personal worth compared to others or of their own weight or body shape is an important determinant of lower self-esteem among adolescents (Mirza et al., 2005; van den Berg et al., 2010). Even though perceived weight or body image does not always reflect reality (Tiggemann & Anderberg, 2019), it is possible that middle school students tend to believe more and be more sensitive to appearances than high school students, particularly because their brains are still at the earliest stage of development compared to high school students. Alternatively, it is possible that middle school students who experience lower self-esteem spend more time on social media than their high school counterparts. We cannot rule out this alternative due to the cross-sectional nature of our data. Regardless, our results suggest that youth with lower self-esteem are heavy social media users. Future interventions intended to strengthen self-esteem among adolescents are needed to reach out to this vulnerable age group. For example, a quasi-experimental study which was conducted in two higher education institutions has shown that a “Strengthening Self-Esteem” intervention was effective in improving students’ self-esteem and self-efficacy levels (Ribeiro et al., 2020). Future research could consider replicating this study in a sample of middle and high school students.
Our inability to identify how students are using social media within the current study prevents an examination of what proportion of students are passive (i.e., monitoring of others without direct engagement) or active users of social media (engaging with other users, by liking, commenting, or sending messages) and how that is related to self-esteem. The posting regret measure available in our study provides partial information only on the manner in which social media is used because it represents an outcome among active users. As such, we cannot separate students who have not experienced posting regret from passive users of social media, because the question was asked to all participants. Nevertheless, our findings suggest that high school students who reported posting regret have greater odds of lower self-esteem. While recent reviews and meta-analyses have not been conclusive on the nature of the association between active and passive social media use in relation to health outcomes (Hancock et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2019; Valkenburg et al., 2021b; Yin et al., 2019), our results underscore the need for heightened efforts to educate and support active social media users to reduce, at least in part, the prevalence of posting regret and low self-esteem.
Our results indicated that 23% of students reported posting regret. This prevalence is comparable to what was recently reported by Pew Research Center, indicating that 19% of adolescents posted updates, comments, photos, or videos that they later regretted sharing. Such high prevalence suggests low privacy awareness among adolescents (Maryani et al., 2020). The finding that posting regret is associated with lower self-esteem in high school students but not in middle school students is not surprising. Research has shown that as they grow, adolescents become more prone to impulsive decisions (Pechmann et al., 2005; Romer, 2010), which they might regret later. Regrets could have lasting consequences for themselves, their families, and their communities. Given the ubiquitous nature of social media, it is important to investigate potential factors that could explain posting regret among adolescents.
Limitations of the study
Several limitations should be considered in the interpretation of the findings. First, the study is based on cross-sectional data, which precludes any inferences about causal or temporal relationships. Students who experience lower self-esteem may be more prone to social media use, or vice versa. Future research should use longitudinal data to mitigate this shortcoming. Second, our analyses are based on self-reported data and thus could be subject to recall and social desirability biases. Third, self-esteem was assessed using a single-item measure, which could raise some reliability issues. Future research using a more refined measure is needed to replicate these findings. Fourth, the survey captured only information on the amount of time spent using social media and experience of posting regret but did not ask questions on the way participants use social media. It did not differentiate passive engagement (simple browsing) from active engagement (posting, liking, and commenting). Another limitation is the possibility of residual confounding, particularly by unmeasured variables, which is always a limitation in observational studies. Finally, our sample did not include approximately 8% of students who were not within the regular school system. Excluded students may differ from those included in our study in the behaviours examined in this study.
Conclusion
Despite limitations, our findings suggest that heavy social media use was more strongly associated with lower self-esteem in middle school students than in their high school counterparts. These differences suggest that middle school students might be more vulnerable to the adverse effects of social media use than those in high school, or that those who experience lower self-esteem spend more time on social media. Health promotion and interventions targeting low self-esteem should be able to reach this vulnerable population when engaged on these web-based platforms and teach them how to avoid posting something they might regret. In parallel, health promotion and intervention programs aimed at reducing screen time among children and adolescents are also necessary given the multitude of health risks associated with excessive screen time in this age group (Fan et al., 2022). While our results are exploratory in nature, there is a need for more research on the relationship between social media use and youth mental health. Future research should also use a longitudinal design to confirm whether limiting time spent on social media could improve self-esteem among adolescents.
Contributions to knowledge
What does this study add to existing knowledge?
Daily social media use of 5 h or more was more strongly associated with lower self-esteem among middle school students than among high school students.
Daily use of 3 to 4 h was associated with lower self-esteem among middle school students, but not among their high school counterparts.
Posting regret was associated with lower self-esteem in high school students, but not in middle school students.
What are the key implications for public health interventions, practice, or policy?
Health promotion and intervention programs targeting low self-esteem should be able to reach the vulnerable population of children and adolescents when engaged on social media platforms and teach them how to avoid posting something they might regret.
Health promotion and intervention programs aimed at reducing screen time among children and adolescents are also necessary given the multitude of health risks associated with excessive screen time.
Acknowledgements
The Ontario Student Drug Use and Health Survey, a Centre for Addiction and Mental Health initiative, was funded in part through ongoing support from the Ontario Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care, as well as targeted funding from several provincial agencies. The funders were not involved in study design; collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; writing the report; or the decision to submit the report for publication.
Author contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Data analysis was performed by HSK. The first draft of the manuscript was written by HSK and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Availability of data and material
Our data cannot be made available in the manuscript, the supplemental files, or a public repository due to the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health’s and The Ontario Public and Catholic School Board’s institutional Research Ethics Board agreements. Qualified, interested researchers may request access to the data at the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health.
Code availability
Code can be made available upon request from the corresponding author.
Declarations
Ethics approval
All procedures performed involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of each institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments. Research ethics approval was obtained from the Research Ethics Boards of the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health and York University.
Consent to participate
Active parental consent and student assent were required to participate.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Footnotes
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Data Availability Statement
Our data cannot be made available in the manuscript, the supplemental files, or a public repository due to the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health’s and The Ontario Public and Catholic School Board’s institutional Research Ethics Board agreements. Qualified, interested researchers may request access to the data at the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health.
Code can be made available upon request from the corresponding author.