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. 2023 Dec 19;9:465. doi: 10.1038/s41420-023-01766-7

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 3 — A Modulate immune responses that provoke excessive inflammation during sepsis. B Enhance immunity during sepsis. The immune response in sepsis is a highly individualized process. Sepsis patients’ immune responses vary depending on their immunological condition at the time of infection, age, comorbidities, environmental variables, and microbiome. Precise immunotherapy can significantly improve the prognosis of sepsis. LPS lipopolysaccharide, TLR4 toll like receptor 4, IL interleukin, TNF-α tumor necrosis factor-alpha, G-CSF Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, GM-CSF granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor, IFN-γ interferon-gamma, APC antigen-presenting cell.