Table 2.
Results of bivariate analyses, outcome of respiratory infection.
| Independent variables |
Respiratory infection/illness |
|||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Estimate | Standard error | Odds ratio | p-value | |
| Cluster level variables | ||||
| Altitude (m) | <0·001 | <0·001 | 1·000 | <0·001 |
| Annual PM2·5 Levels (2019, μg/m3) | 0·008 | <0·001 | 1·008 | <0·001 |
| Annual Rainfall (2020, mm per year) | 0·001 | <0·001 | 1·001 | <0·001 |
| Malaria Prevalence (2020, Plasmodium falciparum parasite rate) | −13·389 | 1·768 | <0·001 | <0·001 |
| Population Density (persons per km2) | <0·001 | <0·001 | 1·000 | <0·001 |
| Region of country (Ref: North) | ||||
| Central | 0·087 | 0·039 | 1·091 | 0·027 |
| East | 0·736 | 0·037 | 2·088 | <0·001 |
| Northeast | 0·025 | 0·045 | 1·025 | 0·58 |
| West | 0·083 | 0·052 | 1·087 | 0·109 |
| South | 0·099 | 0·046 | 1·104 | 0·033 |
| Urban designation (vs. rural) | −0·209 | 0·031 | 0·811 | <0·001 |
| Household variables | ||||
| Average temperature (Celsius, month of interview) | 0·01 | 0·002 | 1·010 | <0·001 |
| Cooking fuel toxicity (Ref: Moderate to high toxicity) | ||||
| Non-toxic or Low-toxicity | −0·177 | 0·025 | 0·838 | <0·001 |
| Other | 0·066 | 0·053 | 1·068 | 0·21 |
| Health insurance coverage for ≥1 household member | −0·04 | 0·024 | 0·961 | 0·101 |
| High quality housing material (vs. low quality) | −0·224 | 0·024 | 0·799 | <0·001 |
| Household has a separate room as a kitchen, yes | −0·245 | 0·028 | 0·783 | <0·001 |
| Mother has not completed primary schooling | 0·097 | 0·024 | 1·102 | <0·001 |
| Number of people living in household | 0·002 | 0·004 | 1·002 | 0·654 |
| Sanitation or toilet facilities (Ref: Improved sanitation) | ||||
| Open defecation | 0·231 | 0·027 | 1·260 | <0·001 |
| Unimproved sanitation | 0·109 | 0·071 | 1·115 | 0·124 |
| Season of Interview (Ref: Monsoon) | ||||
| Post-Monsoon | −0·105 | 0·032 | 0·900 | 0·001 |
| Summer | −0·39 | 0·041 | 0·677 | <0·001 |
| Winter | −0·209 | 0·03 | 0·811 | <0·001 |
| Smoking of tobacco in house: yes (vs. no) | 0·05 | 0·024 | 1·051 | 0·032 |
| Water source: piped into house | −0·302 | 0·028 | 0·739 | <0·001 |
| Wealth index poor (vs. not poor) | 0·267 | 0·024 | 1·306 | <0·001 |
| Child variables | ||||
| Age of child (months) | −0·009 | 0·001 | 0·991 | <0·001 |
| Female (vs. male) | −0·14 | 0·024 | 0·869 | <0·001 |
| Weight of child at birth (kg) | <0·001 | <0·001 | 1·000 | 0·002 |
| Weight of child currently (kg) | 0·055 | 0·016 | 1·057 | 0·001 |
Respiratory Infection/Illness: Demographic Health Survey (DHS), has child suffered from cough AND fever AND short rapid breaths/difficulty breathing in last two weeks (yes vs. no)?
Cooking fuel toxicity: electricity, liquid petroleum gas, natural gas, and biogas are classified as non-toxic or low-toxicity, all else is moderate to highly toxic.
High quality housing material includes fabricated material, such as ceramic tiles, brick, cement, polished stone, marble, etc. All else is low quality.
Population Density: UN adjusted population density (number of people per square km).
Sanitation/toilet facilities: As classified by DHS, improved is flush toilet or modified pit latrine, unimproved is open pit latrine or bucket, open is non toilet facility/location.
Urban designation: As classified by DHS, including large cities, small cities, and towns (other urban areas); all else rural.
Wealth Index: Composite measure of household's cumulative living standard, divided into quintiles by DHS, and dichotomized into poor (bottom two quintiles) vs. not poor.
Estimates and p-values obtained via bivariate logistic regression, where dependent variable was severe respiratory infection.
p-values <0·05 were considered as statistically significant.