Table 2.
Associations of demographic, clinical process, and clinical outcome variables with PAID-20 scores in adults (age ≥18 years) with type 1 diabetes (N = 10,186)
| Variable | Crude | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| B | 95% CI for B |
P | B | 95% CI for B |
β | P | B | 95% CI for B |
β | P | B | 95% CI for B |
β | P | |
| Demographics* | |||||||||||||||
| Female sex | 7.6 | 6.9, 8.3 | <0.001 | 7.3 | 6.6, 8.0 | 0.20 | <0.001 | 7.0 | 6.3, 7.7 | 0.19 | <0.001 | 7.0 | 6.3, 7.7 | 0.19 | <0.001 |
| Age, years | −0.2 | −0.21, −0.16 | <0.001 | −0.2 | −0.25, −0.20 | −0.19 | <0.001 | −0.2 | −0.21, −0.15 | −0.15 | <0.001 | −0.2 | −0.19, −0.13 | −0.14 | <0.001 |
| European origin | −8.6 | −11.0, 6.3 | <0.001 | −6.7 | −9.0, −4.4 | −0.06 | <0.001 | −6.8 | −9.1, −4.5 | −0.06 | <0.001 | −6.5 | −8.7, −4.2 | −0.05 | <0.001 |
| Living alone | 1.7 | 0.8, 2.6 | <0.001 | 1.4 | 0.5, 2.3 | 0.03 | 0.002 | 1.4 | 0.5, 2.3 | 0.03 | 0.002 | 1.1 | 0.2, 1.9 | 0.02 | 0.015 |
| Educational level | |||||||||||||||
| Secondary school | −1.9 | −3.3, −0.5 | 0.01 | −1.2 | −2.5, 0.2 | −0.03 | 0.10 | −0.9 | −2.3, 0.5 | −0.02 | 0.21 | −0.4 | −1.7, 1.0 | −0.10 | 0.59 |
| University/college | −4.2 | −5.7, −2.8 | <0.001 | −3.5 | −4.9, −2.1 | −0.10 | <0.001 | −3.0 | −4.5, −1.6 | −0.08 | <0.001 | −1.8 | −3.2, −0.4 | −0.05 | 0.013 |
| Working or studying | −1.8 | −2.6, −1.0 | <0.001 | −4.1 | −5.0, −3.3 | −0.10 | <0.001 | −4.1 | −5.0, −3.2 | −0.10 | <0.001 | −3.3 | −4.2, −2.4 | −0.08 | <0.001 |
| Clinical processes† | |||||||||||||||
| Diabetes duration, years | −0.1 | −0.16, −0.11 | <0.001 | −0.1 | −0.10, −0.05 | −0.06 | <0.001 | −0.1 | −0.15, −0.08 | −0.09 | <0.001 | ||||
| CGM use | 3.8 | 3.0, 4.5 | <0.001 | 3.1 | 2.3, 3.9 | 0.08 | <0.001 | 2.9 | 2.1, 3.7 | 0.07 | <0.001 | ||||
| CSII | 3.0 | 2.2, 3.7 | <0.001 | 1.1 | 0.3, 1.9 | 0.03 | 0.005 | 0.8 | 0.1, 1.6 | 0.02 | 0.04 | ||||
| Daily smoking | 3.4 | 2.2, 4.6 | <0.001 | 2.7 | 1.5, 3.8 | 0.05 | <0.001 | 1.6 | 0.5, 2.8 | 0.03 | 0.005 | ||||
| Clinical outcomes‡ | |||||||||||||||
| Symptomatic hypoglycemic events, n | 0.1 | 0.08, 0.17 | <0.001 | 0.1 | 0.06, 0.14 | 0.05 | <0.001 | ||||||||
| HbA1c, mmol/mol | 0.3 | 0.23, 0.28 | <0.001 | 0.2 | 0.18, 0.24 | 0.14 | <0.001 | ||||||||
| History of DKA | 4.0 | 3.1, 5.0 | <0.001 | 0.5 | −0.4, 1.5 | 0.01 | 0.27 | ||||||||
| History of severe hypoglycemia | −0.6 | −1.3, 0.2 | 0.15 | −0.1 | −0.9, 0.7 | −0.003 | 0.75 | ||||||||
| Treated retinopathy | 0.8 | −0.3, 1.8 | 0.17 | 2.6 | 1.4, 3.7 | 0.05 | <0.001 | ||||||||
| Reduced foot sensitivity | −0.4 | −1.6, 0.9 | 0.59 | 1.9 | 0.6, 3.2 | 0.03 | 0.005 | ||||||||
| Reduced kidney function§ | 0.5 | −0.6, 1.6 | 0.33 | 0.7 | −0.4, 1.8 | 0.01 | 0.21 | ||||||||
| Coronary heart disease | −1.7 | −3.2, −0.1 | 0.033 | 0.5 | −1.1, 2.0 | 0.006 | 0.55 | ||||||||
CSII, continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion; DKA, diabetic ketoacidosis; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate.
Male sex, non-European origin, not living alone, primary education, and not working/studying.
Self-monitoring of blood glucose, insulin pen use, and nonsmoker.
No history of DKA, no retinopathy or nontreated retinopathy, normal foot sensitivity, normal kidney function (eGFR >60 mL/min/1.73 m2 and urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio <3 mg/mmol), and no coronary heart disease.
Reduced kidney function defined as eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 and urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio ≥3 mg/mmol.