TABLE 2.
Multivariate Regression Estimates of Spanking and Verbal Punishment at Time 1
| Spanking |
Verbal Punishment |
|||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | |||||||||
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||
| Step 1. Household context | Est (SE) | p | Est(SE) | p | Est(SE) | p | Est(SE) | p | Est(SE) | p | Est(SE) | p | Est(SE) | p | Est(SE) | p |
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||
| Male | .119 (.043) | .006 | .123 (.043) | .005 | .120 (.043) | .006 | .098 (.043) | .022 | .090 (.041) | .029 | .102 (.042) | .015 | .096 (.042) | .021 | .068 (.038) | .075 |
| Poverty | −.034 (.051) | .514 | −.045 (.054) | .402 | −.048 (.054) | .371 | −.040 (.053) | .442 | −.062 (.049) | .206 | −.061 (.051) | .236 | −.069 (.051) | .182 | −.057 (.046) | .221 |
| Single parent household | −.076 (.053) | .152 | −.059 (.054) | .282 | −.063 (.055) | .248 | −.091 (.054) | .093 | −.021 (.051) | .681 | −.016 (.052) | .754 | −.023 (.053) | .668 | −.074 (.047) | .122 |
| Maternal HS education | −.042 (.045) | .351 | −.026 (.048) | .588 | −.021 (.048) | .661 | −.016 (.047) | .737 | −.083 (.043) | .054 | −.057 (.046) | .212 | −.054 (.045) | .234 | −.048 (.042) | .248 |
| Maternal age | −.001 (.003) | .860 | .002 (.004) | .551 | .003 (.004) | .513 | .003 (.004) | .406 | −.002 (.003) | .492 | −.004 (.004) | .253 | −.004 (.004) | .234 | −.002 (.003) | .479 |
| Social support from family | −.059 (.019) | .002 | −.055 (.019) | .004 | −.054 (.019) | .006 | −.042 (.019) | .027 | −.043 (.018) | .018 | −.041 (.018) | .026 | −.037 (.019) | .045 | −.020 (.017) | .249 |
| Number of people in the home | .030 (.013) | .019 | .023 (.013) | .074 | .023 (.013) | .081 | .017 (.013) | .178 | .029 (.012) | .018 | .023 (.012) | .066 | .024 (.102) | .053 | .011 (.011) | .346 |
| Step 2. Maternal acculturation | ||||||||||||||||
| Year in the United States | -- | -- | −.002 (.004) | .726 | −.001 (.004) | .748 | −.002 (.004) | .578 | -- | -- | .008 (.004) | .062 | .008 (.004) | .076 | .006 (.004) | .107 |
| English language competence | -- | − | .050 (.049) | .313 | .060 (.050) | .227 | .049 (.049) | .314 | -- | − | −.024 (.047) | .611 | −.023 (.041) | .574 | −.029 (.043) | .502 |
| U.S. American identity | -- | − | −.040 (.026) | .120 | −.042 (.026) | .105 | −.037 (.025) | .140 | -- | -- | −.032 (.025) | .199 | −.035 (.025) | .157 | −.029 (.022) | .194 |
| U.S. American cultural knowledge | -- | − | −.095 (.048) | .048 | −.098 (.048) | .043 | −.093 (.047) | .046 | -- | − | −.029 (.046) | .527 | −.034 (.046) | .460 | −.020 (.042) | .630 |
| Step 3. Parenting context | ||||||||||||||||
| Maternal warmth | -- | -- | -- | -- | −.038 (.036) | .296 | −.024 (.035) | .498 | -- | -- | -- | -- | −.069 (.034) | .044 | −.048 (.031) | .123 |
| Socializing respeto | -- | − | -- | − | .048 (.048) | .318 | .009 (.049) | .852 | -- | − | -- | − | .088 (.046) | .056 | .005 (.042) | .904 |
| Step 4. Child behavior | ||||||||||||||||
| Externalizing (parent report) | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | .011 (.003) | .000 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | .018 (.002) | .000 |
| Internalizing (parent report) | -- | − | -- | − | -- | − | .001 (.002) | .696 | -- | − | -- | − | -- | − | .006 (.002) | .008 |
|
| ||||||||||||||||
| R 2 | .046 | .061 | .064 | .106 | .039 | .049 | .060 | .227 | ||||||||
Note. Maternal HS Education= Maternal high school education (1=High school or above). Analyses were also conducted adjusting for both parent and teacher reported behaviors (N=588); teacher rated internalizing and externalizing behaviors were not significantly associated with spanking or verbal punishment (results are available from the first author).