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. 2023 Nov 22;20:101014. doi: 10.1016/j.fochx.2023.101014

Table 2.

Subgroup meta-analysis for the mean of estimated OPs levels (μg/kg) by countries (based on top 10 OPs with the highest detection frequency).

OPs Country Total sample size Positive samples (Valid samples)a Mean, 95 % CI (μg/kg) Hetrogeneity I2(%) P from test of Heterogeneity Model Reference
Chlorpyrifos United Arab Emirates 3988 3988 (3362) 99.09, [75.70, 122.48] 98.6 0 Random (Osaili et al., 2022a)
(Osaili et al., 2022b)
China 1711 518 (516) 18.31, [12.86, 23.76] 99.3 0 Random (Wang et al., 2013)
(Li et al., 2017)
Iran 1110 1095 (1095) 1.67, [1.55, 1.80] 99.4 0 Random (Taghizadeh et al., 2021)
(Hadian et al., 2019)
India 686 288 (287) 22.11, [18.00, 26.22] 99.9 0 Random (Narenderan et al., 2019)
(Rai et al., 2016)
Ghana 592 584 (584) 306.64, [204.46, 408.05] 99.9 0 Random (Okoffo et al., 2016)
(Essumang et al., 2013)
(Akoto et al., 2015)
Thailand 65 32 (28) 17.61, [9.59, 25.63] 51 0.031 Random (Sapbamrer and Hongsibsong, 2014)
Chile 80 80 (57) N.C.b N.C. N.C. N.C. (Elgueta et al., 2020)
Turkey 40 7 (5) N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C. (Elmastas et al., 2023)
Kazakhstan 19 1 (0) N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C. (Lozowicka et al., 2015)
Brazil 13 5(4) N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C. (Alcantara et al., 2018)
Total 8304 6598 (5938) 14.43, [14.00, 14.85] 99.9 0 Random The above 16 studies
Profenofos United Arab Emirates 4331 4331 (2619) 114.81, [89.87, 139.76] 98.1 0 Random (Osaili et al., 2022a)
(Osaili et al., 2022b)
China 1633 252 (252) 38.09, [13.58, 62.61] 87.3 0 Random (Mao et al., 2021)
India 659 283 (277) 6.10, [4.70, 7.50] 99.9 0 Random (Narenderan et al., 2019)
Ghana 520 520 (520) 9.88, [1.37, 18.45] 89.1 0.002 Random (Essumang et al., 2013)
(Akoto et al., 2015)
Nigeria 300 300 (240) 281.64, [262.69, 300.59] 95.9 0 Random (Omeje et al., 2022)
Ethiopia 50 5 (5) N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C. (Wondimu al., 2023)
Thailand 13 2 (0) N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C. (Sapbamrer and Hongsibsong, 2014)
Total 7506 5693 (3913) 43.50, [41.99, 45.01] 100 0 Random The above 9 studies
Dimethoate United Arab Emirates 4319 4319 (2930) 112.24, [82.54, 141.94] 99 0 Random (Osaili et al., 2022a)
(Osaili et al., 2022b)
Iran 1080 1080 (1080) 9.84, [9.76, 9.92] 79.4 0 Random (Taghizadeh et al., 2021)
Ghana 540 540 (540) 57.98, [16.27, 99.69] 99.9 0 Random (Essumang et al., 2013)
(Akoto et al., 2015)
Nigeria 300 300 (180) 84.44, [82.76, 86.13] 99.4 0 Random (Omeje et al., 2022)
China 209 71 (71) 73.47, [50.35, 96.59] 99.9 0 Random (Wang et al., 2013)
(Yu et al., 2016)
Kazakhstan 19 2 (2) N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C. (Lozowicka et al., 2015)
Total 6467 6312 (4803) 22.26, [21.29, 23.22] 99.8 0 Random The above 9 studies
Methamidophos United Arab Emirates 4207 4207 (2621) 61.83, [50.21, 73.46] 96.6 0 Random (Osaili et al., 2022a)
(Osaili et al., 2022b)
Iran 1080 1080 (1080) 9.89, [9.75, 10.02] 51.67 0.019 Random (Taghizadeh et al., 2021)
Ghana 560 560 (560) 11.50, [6.35, 16.66] 99.7 0 Random (Essumang et al., 2013)
(Akoto et al., 2015)
China 178 37 (36) 94.60, [–59.71, 248.91] 100 0 Random (Yu et al., 2016)
Chile 80 80 (80) 947.08, [–814.36, 2708.51] 84.19 0.012 Random (Elgueta et al., 2020)
Total 6105 5964 (4377) 42.74, [13.25, 72.24] 100 0 Random The above 7 studies
Acephate United Arab Emirates 5502 5502 (3540) 223.04, [169.49, 276.59] 99.2 0 Random (Osaili et al., 2022a)
(Osaili et al., 2022b)
India 659 283 (277) 6.68, [5.37, 7.99] 99.9 0 Random (Narenderan et al., 2019)
China 76 3 (2) N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C. (Wang et al., 2013)
Total 6237 5788 (3819) 19.86, [18.25, 21.47] 99.2 0 Random The above 4 studies
Triazophos United Arab Emirates 3672 3672 (1058) 174.73, [–11.47, 360.93] 99.3 0 Random (Osaili et al., 2022a)
(Osaili et al., 2022b)
China 1716 89 (87) 5.11, [3.31, 6.90] 51.7 0.035 Random (Zhao et al., 2015)
(Li et al., 2021)
(Li et al., 2022)
Kazakhstan 29 1 (0) N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C. (Lozowicka et al., 2015)
Total 5417 3762 (1145) 31.53, [23.06, 39.65] 98 0 Random The above 6 studies
Omethoate United Arab Emirates 4610 4610 (3739) 59.02, [48.76, 69.27] 98.6 0 Random (Osaili et al., 2022a)
(Osaili et al., 2022b)
China 224 57 (55) 56.90, [47.36, 66.44] 100 0 Random (Wang et al., 2013)
(Yu et al., 2016)
Thailand 3 3 (3) N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C. (Sapbamrer and Hongsibsong, 2014)
Total 4837 4670 (3797) 71.59, [65.19, 78.00] 99.9 0 Random The above 5 studies
Diazinon Iran 1140 1112 (1112) 2.39, [2.11, 2.67] 99.9 0 Random (Taghizadeh et al., 2021)
(Rohani et al., 2014)
China 254 178 (178) 42.51, [7.66, 92.69] 100 0 Random (Yu et al., 2016)
(Zhao et al., 2015)
Thailand 25 16 (15) 79.35, [–42.04, 200.74] 99.9 0 Random (Sapbamrer and Hongsibsong, 2014)
United Arab Emirates 666 666 (0) N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C. (Osaili et al., 2022a)
(Osaili et al., 2022b)
Ghana 532 518 (500) N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C. (Okoffo et al., 2016)
(Essumang et al., 2013)
Trinidad and Tobago 6 1 (0) N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C. (Collimore and Bent, 2020)
Total 2623 2491 (1805) 26.86, [23.69, 30.03] 100 0 Random The above 10 studies
Fenitrothion Iran 1080 1080 (1080) 1.42, [1.27, 1.56] 99.8 0 Random (Taghizadeh et al., 2021)
Nigeria 300 300 (180) 100.00, [98.54, 101.46] 0 1 Fixed (Omeje et al., 2022)
China 178 45 (43) 6.83, [0.53, 13.12] 99.9 0 Random (Yu et al., 2016)
Ghana 500 500 (500) N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C. (Essumang et al., 2013)
Thailand 3 1 (0) N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C. (Sapbamrer and Hongsibsong, 2014)
Total 2061 1926 (1803) 6.89, [6.57, 7.20] 99.9 0 Random The above 5 studies
Phorate Ghana 540 540 (540) 10.13, [4.75, 25.01] 99.8 0 Random (Essumang et al., 2013)
(Akoto et al., 2015)
China 254 104 (104) 41.48, [33.33, 49.63] 100 0 Random (Wang et al., 2013)
(Yu et al., 2016)
United Arab Emirates 748 748 (0) N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C. (Osaili et al., 2022a)
(Osaili et al., 2022b)
(Essumang et al., 2013)
Nigeria 300 300 (0) N.C. N.C. N.C. N.C. (Omeje et al., 2022)
Total 1842 1692 (644) 32.62, [25.73, 39.51] 100 0 Random The above 8 studies
a

Due to the reporting of a standard deviation of 0.00 for certain positive samples in some of the studies, which makes the meta-analysis of these samples becomes unfeasible. Therefore, the number of samples employed in the meta-analysis is designated as “valid samples”.

b

Due to the insufficient number of non-zero standard deviations (SDs) in specific subgroups, it was not possible to perform a meta-analysis. Consequently, these subgroups were represented by the abbreviation “N.C.” to indicate the inability to calculate.