Table 3.

Volatile compounds in pork processed by various cooking methods.

No.	Compounds	RIsa		Odor descriptionb	Processing methodc
		Polar	Non Polar
Aldehydes
1	Hexanal	1098	789	green, cut-grass, rancid, fatty, fruity, acorn	stewed[1,2,4,5,6], boiled[3,9], smoked[15,16,17,19,20], roasted[22,23,24], fried[10,12,14], stir-fried[11], deep fried[13]
2	(E)-2-heptenal	1316	970	fatty	Stewed[4,7,5,6], boiled[9], smoked[16,17], roasted[22], freid[14]
3	(E)-2-octenal	1416	1065	nutty, fatty	Stewed[1,4,7,5,6], boiled[3], smoked[16,18], roasted[21,22], freid[14]
4	Benzaldehyde	1530	939	almond-like, roasty	Stewed[1,2,8,5,6], boiled[3,9], smoked[15,16,17,19,20], roasted[22,23,24], fried[10,12,14], deep fried[13]
5	(E)-2-decenal	1600	1247	waxy, fatty, meaty	Stewed[1,4,5,6], boiled[3,9], roasted[22,23]
6	(E)-2-undecanal	1731	/	fruity	Stewed[4,7]
7	(E,E)-2,4-decadienal	1781	1306	fatty, fried, waxy	Stewed[1,4,7,5,6], boiled[3,9], smoked[16], roasted[22,23]
8	(E,Z)-2,4-decadienal	/	1327	fat, fried	Smoked[16], roasted[22], freid[14]
9	(E,E)-2,4-nonadienal	1695	1204	fatty, geranium, pungent	Stewed[1,6], boiled[3], smoked[16], roasted[22]
10	Octanal	1291	1013	fatty, green, fresh, meat, stew-like, rancid, fruity, rancid, sewage, roasted	Stewed[1,2,4,7,5], boiled[3,9], smoked[15,18,19,20], roasted[22,23], freid[14]
11	Nonanal	1388	1090	fatty, oily, rancid, sweet, green	Stewed[1,2,4,7,8,5,6], boiled[3,9], smoked[15,16,19,20], roasted[22,24], fried[10,12,14], deep fried[13]
12	2-Undecenal	1747	1159	fatty, sweet	Stewed[1,5], boiled[3], fried[10], smoked[15,16]
13	Decanal	1501	1207	sweet, penetrating, floral, citrus, waxy	Stewed[1,7,5], boiled[3,9], smoked[16,20], roasted[23], fried[10,12,14]
14	Pentanal	1002	693	green, nutty, toasted, fruity, pungent, acrid	Stewed[1,2,5,6], boiled[3,9], smoked[15,16,17,20], roasted[22,23], fried[10,12,14]
15	(E)-2-hexenal	1206	856	green, fatty	Stewed[7,6], boiled[9], smoked[16], roasted[22]
16	Heptanal	1192	881	fatty, oily, toasted, fruity, sewage, cured ham-like	Stewed[1,2,4,7,5,6], boiled[3,9], smoked[15,16,19,20], roasted[22,23], fried[10,12,14], stir-fried[11]
17	Phenylacetaldehyde	1648	1031	rose	Stewed[6], roasted[22]
18	(E)-2-nonenal	1542	1157	cucumber, peanut, almond, fatty	Stewed[1,2,7,5,6], boiled[3,9], smoked[18]
19	Benzeneacetaldehyde	/	1051	rosy, honey	Stewed[1,5], boiled[9], smoked[16], roasted[23], fried[10,14]
20	(E,E)-2,4-heptadienal	1486	1007	chicken soup	Stewed[7], boiled[3], smoked[16], roasted[22], fried[10]
21	Propanal	776	/	almond-like, green, broth, spicy	Stewed[1], fried[12]
22	2-Methylpropanal	/	552	toasted, fruity, pungent, alcoholic, nutty	Smoked[15], fried[10], stir-fried[11]
23	2-Methylbutanal	903	662	rancid, almond-like, toasted, fruity	Smoked[15,17,19,20], roasted[23], fried[10,12,14], stir-fried[11]
24	3-Methylbutanal	906	654	acorn, nutty, almond, toasted, cheesy, salty, fruity, pungent, malty	Smoked[15,16,19,20], roasted[22,23], fried[10,12,14], stir-fried[11]
25	2-Hexenal	/	855	fruity, olive oil-like	Smoked[15,16], fried[10,14]
26	2-Heptenal	1310	/	green, fatty, fried food-like, fruity, almond	Fried[10,12]
27	2-Octenal	1416	1062	leaves, pungent, fatty, rancid, tropical fruit-like, fruity	Smoked[15], fried[10,12]
28	2-Nonenal	/	1163	fatty, waxy	Smoked[15,16], fried[10,14]
29	2,4-Decadienal	/	1325	fatty, rancid	Roasted[24], fried[10]
30	Butanal	850	593	smoky, fish, amylic, aldehyde	Stewed[1], smoked[17], fried[10,12]
31	2,4-Nonadienal	/	1218	/	Stewed[7], fried[10]
32	2-Decenal	/	1266	/	Smoked[15,16], fried[10]
33	Dodecanal	1706	1412	herbaceous, fatty	Boiled[3], smoked[20], roasted[23], freid[14]
34	Tetradecanal	1918	1609	roasted, fried	Stewed[1,7,6], boiled[3], smoked[16], roasted[22,23]
35	Pentadecanal	2025	1713	/	Stewed[1], boiled[3,9], smoked[16], roasted[22]
36	Hexadecanal	2133	1791	/	Stewed[1,6], boiled[3,9], smoked[16,21], roasted[22,23]
37	Octadecanal	2380	1998	/	Stewed[6], boiled[9], smoked[16], roasted[24]
38	Undecanal	1598	1305	floral, green, mild	Smoked[20], roasted[23]
39	(E)-2-Pentenal	/	746	/	Stewed[7], roasted[22]
40	4-(1-Methylethyl)benzaldehyde	/	1200	/	Stewed[5], roasted[22]
41	(E)-9-Octadecenal	/	1991	/	Stewed[1], roasted[22,24]
42	tridecanal	1812	1525	fatty, sweet	Boiled[3], roasted[23]
43	(Z)-4-Decenal	1534	1202	/	Stewed[1], boiled[3]
44	2-butyl-2-octenal	/	1372	cured ham, meaty	Stewed[1], boiled[3]
45	2-Methyl-2-butenal	1103	738	/	Stewed[7,6]
Sulfur compounds
46	3-(Methylthio)propanal	1424	906	cooked potato	Stewed[5,6], smoked[15,16]
47	Dimethyl disulfide	1073	737	onions, rotten, burnt	Stewed[1,5,6], boiled[3], smoked[15], fried[10,12,14]
48	Dimethyl trisulfide	1389	972	meaty, cooked cabbage, sulfur, rotten egg	Stewed[1,5], boiled[9], smoked[15], roasted[23], fried[10,12]
49	Methanethiol	/	＜500	sulfur, gasoline, rotten eggs, meat or fish, cheesy	Stewed[1], smoked[15]
50	2-Thiophenecarboxaldehyde	1679	1008	sulfur, nutty	Stewed[1,5,6]
51	4-Methyl-5-thiazoleethanol	2275	1266	sesame	Stewed[5,6]
52	(Z)-13-Octadecenal	2343	1965	/	Boiled[9], smoked[16]
Ketones				/
53	2-Heptanone	/	892	coconut, woody, spicy, toasted	Stewed[1,6], smoked[15,16,20], roasted[22,23], fried[10,14]
54	3-Hydroxy-2-butanone (acetoin)	1290	718	fatty, yogurt	Stewed[4,5], smoked[16], roasted[22], fried[10,14], stir-fried[11]
55	1-Hydroxypropan-2-one (1-Hydroxy-2-propanone)	1303	668	pungent, sweet	Stewed[1,4,5], smoked[16]
56	2-Butanone	908	597	green, buttery	Stewed[1,5], smoked[15,17,19,20], fried[12,14]
57	2-Pentanone	978	687	sweet	Stewed[5], boiled[9], smoked[17,20], roasted[23], fried[10]
58	Acetophenone	1661	1069	floral, sweet	Stewed[1,5], boiled[9], smoked[17,19,20]
59	2-Pentadecanone	2008	1688	sweet	Stewed[4,7,8,6], boiled[9], smoked[16], roasted[22]
60	2,3-Pentanedione	1060	722	butter	Stewed[1,5], fried[10,12]
61	6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one	1342	990	fruity	Stewed[5], smoked[17,20], fried[10]
62	2,3-Butanedione	/	593	sweet, vanilla/caramel-like	Stewed[1], smoked[17,20], fried[10,14]
63	2-Octanone	1297	/	fruity, green, floral, fresh	Stewed[1], stir-fried[11]
64	1-Octen-3-one	1315	/	rust-like, dust, mushroom	Smoked[15,18]
65	2-Nonanone	/	1087	floral, fruity	Boiled[9], roasted[22,23], fried[10,14]
66	Cyclohexanone	1289	844	sweet, wine-like	Boiled[9], smoked[17], fried[10]
67	2-Methyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one (2-Methyl-2-cyclopentenone)	/	909	/	Smoked[19], fried[10]
68	2,3-Octanedione	1333	983	mushroom, fungi, green, woody	Stewed[1,6], smoked[15], roasted[23], fried[10,14]
69	2-Decanone	/	1193	heavy, sweet	Roasted[23], fried[10]
70	2-Undecanone	/	1294	fruity, fatty	Boiled[9], fried[10,14]
71	Acetone (propan-2-one)	810	503	fruity	Smoked[19], stir-fried[11], fried[12,14]
72	2-Heptadecanone	/	1910	/	Boiled[9], smoked[16], fried[14]
73	2,3-Dimethyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one	/	1027	/	Smoked[15,16,19]
74	3-Methyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one	1498	976	sweet, fruity	Stewed[6], boiled[9], smoked[16,18,19]
75	3-Methyl-1,2-cyclopentanedione	/	/	/	Smoked[16,19]
76	3-Ethyl-2-cyclopenten-1-one	1677	1065	caramel-like	Smoked[16,18]
77	3,5-Octadien-2-one	1564	1098	/	Boiled[3], roasted[22]
Alcohols
78	1-Pentanol	1250	761	fusel oil, peanut, strong, balsamic, mildly sweet	Stewed[1,5,6], boiled[3,9], smoked[15,16,17,19], roasted[22,23], fried[6,14], stir-fried[11]
79	1-Octen-3-ol	1451	960	mushroom, earthy, dust rust-like	Stewed[1,2,4,7,5,6], boiled[3,9], smoked[15,16,19], roasted[23,24], fried[10,14]
80	2-Furanmethanol	1635	864	caramel, bread	Stewed[6], boiled[3,9], smoked[15,16,20], roasted[22], stir-fried[11]
81	2-Butanol	1029	606	alcoholic	Stewed[5], fried[10]
82	3,5-Octadien-2-ol	/	1021	green	Stewed[5], roasted[22]
83	Phenylethyl alcohol	1883	1112	rose	Stewed[1,5,6], smoked[15]
84	1-Octanol	1553	1072	fatty, oxidized oil-like	Stewed[1,2,7,8,5,6], boiled[3], smoked[15,19], roasted[23], fried[10,14]
85	1-Heptanol	1457	970	floral	Stewed[1,5,6], boiled[9], smoked[15], roasted[23], fried[10]
86	Ethanol	937	453	alcohol, sweet	Stewed[5], smoked[17,19], stir-fried[11], fried[12]
87	1-Nonanol	1564	1173	fatty, green	Stewed[1,5]
88	Benzyl alcohol	1848	1045	/	Stewed[6], boiled[9]
89	2-Methyl-2-propanol	/	1016	/	Stewed[5], fried[10]
90	1-Butanol	1155	/	medicinal, fruity	Stewed[1,6], boiled[9], fried[10]
91	1-Penten-3-ol	1172	675	pungent, butter	Stewed[1,6], smoked[15,20], roasted[22,23], fried[10]
92	3-Methyl-3-buten-1-ol	1254	733	/	Stewed[6], boiled[9], fried[10]
93	3-Methyl-2-buten-1-ol	1325	767	/	Stewed[6], boiled[9], fried[10]
94	1-Hexanol	1358	869	fruity, green	Stewed[1,6], boiled[3], smoked[15,19], roasted[22,23], fried[10,14]
95	2-Ethylhexanol	1493	1028	minty	Stewed[1], boiled[9], roasted[23], fried[14]
96	2,3-Butanediol	1568	778	/	Stewed[1,6], stir-fried[11]
97	Isopropyl alcohol	916	707	/	Smoked[17], fried[12]
98	3-Methyl-1-butanol (Isoamyl alcohol)	/	726	/	Smoked[15,19], roasted[22]
99	1,8-Cineole	1204	/	mint, sweet	Stewed[1,2]
100	4-Terpinenol	/	1177	/	Stewed[1], roasted[24]
101	(E)-2-Octenol	1610	1079	soap, plastic	Stewed[1,2,5], boiled[3]
102	2-Ethyl-1-hexanol	1493	1030	/	Stewed[5,6]
Acids
103	Propanoic acid	1539	/	pungent acidic, sweat	Stewed[6], stir-fried[11], fried[14]
104	Butanoic acid	1635	824	pungent acidic, rancid, cheesy	Stewed[6], smoked[16]
105	Hexanoic acid	1857	1036	sour, fatty, cheesy, sweat	Stewed[4,6], fried[14]
106	Octanoic acid	2049	1179	fatty, waxy	Stewed[4,8,6], fried[14]
107	Nonanoic acid	2153	1275	waxy	Stewed[4,8,6], roasted[23], fried[14]
108	Decanoic acid	2255	1376	sour, fatty	Stewed[4,8,6], fried[14]
109	Tetradecanoic acid	/	1769	fatty, soapy	Stewed[5,6], boiled[9], smoked[16]
110	Acetic acid	1431	660	sour, sweat	Stewed[1,8,6], smoked[19,20], stir-fried[11], fried[14]
111	3-Methylbutanoic acid (Isovaleric acid)	/	864	animal, cheese-like, Foot-like, acid, spoiled ham	Stewed[8], smoked[17]
112	Dodecanoic acid	2474	1574	camphor	Stewed[4,8,6]
113	Pentanoic acid	1732	893	meaty, roasted, spoiled ham	Stewed[1,6]
114	Hexadecanoic acid	/	1952	waxy	Stewed[7,6], boiled[9], smoked[16,21]
115	Octadecanoic acid	/	2148		Stewed[7,6], boiled[9]
Esters
116	Ethyl acetate	886	569	fruity	Stewed[1,5], smoked[17,19], stir-fried[11]
117	Methyl palmitate	2196	1923	sweet	Stewed[8,6]
118	Butyl acetate	1089	/	fruity	Stir-fried[11], stewed[6]
119	Hexanoic acid ethyl ester	1231	997	/	Stewed[5], smoked[16]
120	Butyrolactone	/	911	/	Stewed[1], smoked[16], roasted[23]
121	γ-Dodecalactone	/	1683	peach-like	Smoked[16], roasted[22]
122	γ-Butyrolactone	1610	908	/	Stewed[4,6], smoked[17]
123	Ethyl propionate	957	696	/	Stewed[5], smoked[17]
124	4-Hexanolide	1693	1063	/	Stewed[1,6]
Heterocyclic compounds
125	2-Acetylpyrrole	/	1061	musty	Smoked[17], roasted[23]
126	2-Acetylthiazole	1650	1040	sesame, roasted, rice	Stewed[5,6], boiled[3,9], smoked[16], roasted[22,23]
127	Benzothiazole	1961	1224	caramel, cheese	Stewed[1,5,6], boiled[3,9], smoked[20], roasted[22]
128	Furfural (2-Furfural)	1469	818	roasted	Stewed[1,5,6], boiled[9], smoked[16,17,19,20], roasted[22], fried[10], stir-fried[11]
129	2-Pentylfuran	1234	993	fruity, green, butter	Stewed[1,2,4,7,5,6], boiled[3,9], smoked[15,16,19,20], roasted[22,23,24], fried[10,12,14], deep fried[13]
130	2-Ethylfurane	952	712	sweet, rubber, pungent	Boiled[3], smoked[20], roasted[22]
131	3-Methylthiophene	1185	773	/	Stewed[1], boiled[3]
132	Methylpyrazine	/	827	/	Smoked[16], roasted[23], fried[10]
133	2,5-Dimethylpyrazine	1316	915	/	Smoked[16], roasted[22,23], fried[10,14], stir-fried[11], deep fried[13]
134	2-Ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine	1441	1079	/	Fried[10,12,14]
135	2-Acetylfuran	1483	913	sweet, roast	Smoked[18], fried[10]
136	2-Furanmethanethiol	/	913	/	Smoked[18], fried[10]
137	Pyridine	1178	742	burnt	Stewed[1,5,6], boiled[9,6], smoked[19,20], fried[10,14]
138	Pyrrole	/	751	/	Smoked[20], fried[10], stir-fried[11]
139	2,3,5-trimethylpyrazine (trimethylpyrazine)	1405	1006	roasty, earthy	Smoked[16,18], stir-fried[11], fried[12], deep fried[13]
140	2-Methylfuran	817	/	/	Smoked[20], fried[12]
141	Dibenzofuran	2284	1505	/	Stewed[5], smoked[16]
142	5-Methylfurfural	1593	966	green, sweet, grass	Smoked[17,18]
143	2-Methylpyrazine	1260	863	roasty, nutty	Smoked[18], roasted[22]
144	Pyrazine	1206	/	/	Stewed[6], smoked[20]
145	3-Ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine	/	1078	/	Roasted[22,23]
Hydrocarbons
146	Toluene (Methyl benzene)	1039	759	fruity, sweet	Stewed[1,5], boiled[9], smoked[19,20], roasted[22,23], fried[10,14]
147	Hexane	/	/	spicy	Smoked[20], stir-fried[11]
148	Heptane	700	/	sweet	Smoked[16,20], fried[10]
149	Octane	800	788	sweet	Boiled[9], smoked[19,20], fried[10,12], stir-fried[11]
150	Limonene	1190	1034	lemon, wood, citric, fresh	Boiled[3], smoked[16,19], roasted[22], fried[14]
151	α-Pinene	/	937	sharp, pine	Smoked[19], roasted[22], fried[10], stir-fried[11]
152	Methylcyclohexane	/	724	/	Smoked[20], fried[10]
153	2-Octene	/	806	/	Smoked[20], fried[10]
154	4-Octene	/	813	/	Smoked[20], fried[10]
155	Ethylbenzene	1132	858	glue, unpleasant	Stewed[1,5,6], boiled[3], smoked[19,20], roasted[24], fried[10]
156	Naphthalene	1737	1185	camphoric	Stewed[1,2,5], boiled[3], smoked[16], roasted[22], fried[10,14]
157	1,3-Dimethylbenzene	/	872	/	Stewed[1], boiled[9], smoked[20], fried[10]
158	1,2-Dimethylbenzene (o-xylene)	1176	896	/	Stewed[1,6], boiled[3], smoked[20], fried[10], stir-fried[11]
159	Nonane	/	896	/	Stewed[6], fried[10]
160	1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene	1271	945	/	Stewed[1], boiled[3]
161	Decane	1025	993	/	Stewed[1,6], boiled[9], fried[10]
162	3-Carene	/	1013	/	Smoked[16,19], roasted[22], fried[10]
163	d-Limonene	1170	1014	sweet, citrus, mint	Stewed[1,2,7,5,6], boiled[9], fried[10]
164	Undecane	1100	/	/	Smoked[16], roasted[22,23], fried[10], stir-fried[11]
165	Dodecane	1210	1203	/	Stewed[1,6], boiled[3,9], smoked[16,19,21], roasted[23], fried[10], stir-fried[11]
166	Tridecane	1301	1293	/	Stewed[1,4,6], boiled[3], roasted[23], fried[10]
167	1-Tetradecene	/	1391	/	Stewed[7], roasted[22], fried[10]
168	Tetradecane	1399	1389	/	Stewed[1,4,6], boiled[3,9], smoked[16,21], roasted[23], fried[10]
169	camphene	/	943	/	Roasted[22], stir-fried[11]
170	β-pinene	/	976	/	Smoked[19], roasted[22], stir-fried[11]
171	Styrene	1261	895	herbaceous, fatty	Stewed[1,5,6], boiled[3], roasted[22], stir-fried[11]
172	Pentadecane	1495	1498	/	Stewed[1,4,6], boiled[3], smoked[16,20], roasted[22,23], fried[14], stir-fried[11]
173	2-Methylpentane	/	573	/	Smoked[20], fried[14]
174	1,2,4,5-tetramethylbenzene	1418	1218	/	Stewed[1], boiled[3]
175	Hexadecane	1594	1590	/	Stewed[4,7], boiled[3,9], smoked[16,20], roasted[23]
176	p-Xylene (Paraxylene)	1118	875	/	Stewed[1,6], boiled[3,9], smoked[16,19], roasted[24]
177	Caryophyllene	/	1421	/	Smoked[16], roasted[22]
178	Octadecane	1794	1792	/	Stewed[4,6], smoked[16]
179	1-Methylnaphthalene	1877	1303	medicinal, sweet, vanilla-like	Smoked[16,18]
180	γ-Cadinene	/	1513	/	Smoked[16], roasted[22]
181	2-Methylnaphthalene	1908	1299	bitter	Boiled[3], smoked[18]
182	Benzene	/	/	/	Stewed[1], smoked[20]
183	Nonadecane	1893	/	/	Stewed[4,6]
184	Docosane	2193	2199	/	Stewed[4,6]
185	Tricosane	2287	2289	/	Stewed[4,6]
186	Tetracosane	2405	2397	/	Stewed[4,6]
Phenols
187	2,4-Bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-phenol	2248	1487	woody	Stewed[1,5]
188	2-Methylphenol (o-cresol)	2028	1063	vanilla-like, woody	Smoked[15,16,18,19,20]
189	3-Methylphenol	2109	1086	burning, leathery, stinky	Smoked[15,16,18]
190	4-Methylphenol (p-cresol)	2071	1093	Herbal, animal	Stewed[4,6], boiled[9], smoked[15,20,21]
191	2-Methoxyphenol (Guaiacol)	1888	1075	woody, sweet, smoky	Smoked[15,16,17,18,19,20]
192	2,5-Dimethylphenol	2099	1135	butyric acid, stink, leather	Smoked[15,18]
193	2,3-Dimethylphenol	/	1136	/	Smoked[15,16]
194	3-Ethylphenol	2105	1156	leathery, smoky	Smoked[15,16]
195	Phenol	1970	998	/	Boiled[9], smoked[16,21]
196	4-Ethyl Guaiacol (4-Ethyl-2-methoxyphenol)	2048	1279	wood, smoky, caramel-like	Smoked[16,18,19,21]
197	2,6-Dimethoxyphenol	2283	1352	leathery, green	Smoked[16,18,19,21]
198	2,6-Dimethylphenol	1937	1109	smoky, burning	Smoked[16,18,19]
199	4-Ethylphenol (p-Ethylphenol)	/	1172	/	Smoked[16,21]
200	4-Methyl guaiacol	1978	1196	sweet, wood, caramel-like, smoky	Smoked[16,18]
201	Butylated hydroxytoluene	1902	1484	/	Stewed[6], smoked[16]
202	2-Methoxy-6-methylphenol	1897	1257	woody, sweet	Smoked[18,19]
203	3,4-Dimethylphenol	2102	1194	butyric acid, stinky, leathery	Smoked[18,21]
204	Eugenol	2155	1361	clove, honey	Stewed[2], roasted[22,24]
Others
205	Benzonitrile	/	997	/	Smoked[16], fried[10]
206	Estragole	/	1206	licorice, anise	Stewed[1,2], roasted[22]
207	cis-Anethole	/	1245	anissed-like, rubber, paint	Stewed[1,2], boiled[3], roasted[22]
208	trans-Anethole	/	1290	anissed-like	Roasted[22,24]

^a Retention indices (RIs) relative to the n-alkanes in the polar (DB-wax) and non-polar (DB-5) columns documented in the NIST 14 database. “/”, no data found.

^b Odor descriptions were referred to the references of Nos. writing in this table. “/”, no data found.

^c The Nos. in the brackets are the references Nos. listed in the supplementary file 1.