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Schematics of SnO2 nanoparticle synthesis and the spin-coating deposition of the nanoparticles on an FTO substrate. An organic structure-directing agent (L-phenylalanine methyl ester hydrochloride) was added to a tin source to form the Sn(IV) complex, resulting in a cloudy reaction solution. The transparent, colorless solutions that resulted after hydrolysis and polycondensation were used to prepare the precursor solution for the spin-coating process.
