Table 1.

Alterations in the immunological properties in the milk of obese mothers.

Bioactive Component	Alterations	References	Values
Carbohydrates
HMOs
LNFPI	Decrease	Isganaitis et al. [59]	reduction of 60%
LNFPII/III	Increase	Isganaitis et al. [59]	increase of 1.674×
2′-FL	Decrease	Isganaitis et al. [59]	reduction of 40%
	Increase	Lagstrom et al. [60], Wang et al. [61]	increase of 8 nmol/L
Igs
IgG	Decrease	Dyndar et al. [87]	2.1× lower
2.IgM	Decrease	Dyndar et al. [87]	1.9× lower
3.IgA	Decrease	Dyndar et al. [87]	2.2× lower
4.SIgA	Increase	Fujimori et al. [55]	no specific data
Lactoferrin	Increase	Houghton et al. [88]	increase of 0.36–0.76 mg/mL
	Decrease	Dyndar et al. [87]	1.6× lower
Cytokines
1.IL-6	Increase	Collado et al. [89]	increase of 18.99 pg/mL (colostrum)
	Decrease	Collado et al. [89]	decrease of 8.9 pg/mL (1-month milk)
2.IL-10	Increase	Collado et al. [89]	increase of 2.55 pg/mL (colostrum)
3.IL-4	Increase	Collado et al. [89]	increase of 2.57 pg/mL (colostrum)
4.TNFα	Increase	Collado et al. [89]	increase of 1.54 pg/mL (colostrum)
	Decrease	Collado et al. [89]	decrease of 0.37 pg/mL (1-month milk)
Growth factors
1.EGF	Decrease	Khodabakhshi [90]	decrease of 0.002 ng/mL
Adipokines
1.Adiponectin	Increase	Martin et al. [91], Clark et al. [92]	increase of 3653 pg/mL
		Yu X et al. [93]
	Decrease	Guler et al. [94]	no specific data
2.Ghrelin	Decrease Increase	Zhang et al. [95], Yu X et al. [93] Guler et al. [94]	decrease of 145.53 pg/mL no specific data
3.Leptin	Increase	Uysal et al. [96], Clark et al. [92], Quinn et al. [97], De Luca et al. [50], Sims et al. [98], Young et al. [99], Savino et al. [100], Chan et al. [101], Kugananthan et al. [102], Fields et al. [103,104], Schuster et al. [105]	96.5% (overweight) and 315.1% (obese) higher; 1.5–2.5 times higher; increase of 830.6 pg/mL; increase of 1.3–2.3 ng/nL; 1.59 log unit increase; increase of 0.006 ± 0.002 ng/mL
Leukocytes
1. B lymphocytes	Decrease	Piñeiro-Salvado et al. [106]	reduction of 0.24%
Casein	Decrease	Dyndar et al [87]	1.5× lower
FAA	Increase	De Luca et al. [107]	increase of 20%
	Decrease	Bardanzellu et al. [108]	reduce of 30%
Polyamines	Decrease	Ali et al. [109]	decrease of about 10 nmol/dL (spermidine) and 10–30 nmol/dL (putrescine) and depending on the month
Nucleotides
1.Pyrimidines	Decrease	Isganaitis et al. [59]	reduction of 25%
2.Purines	Increase	Isganaitis et al. [59]	increase of 1.76×
Osteopontin	Increase	Zhu et al. [110], Ruan et al. [111]	no specific data
	Decrease	Aksan et al. [112]	decrease of 16–77.1 mg/L
CRP	Increase	Sims et al. [98], Whitaker et al. [113]	no specific data
Microbiome
Staphylococcus	Increase	Collado et al. [89], Cabrera-Rubio et al. [114], Lemay-Nedjelski et al. [115]	increase of 0.42–0.62 copies/mL
2. Bifidobacterium	Decrease	Collado et al. [89], Cabrera-Rubio et al. [114]	decrease of 0.26–0.64 copies/mL
3. Akkermansia muciniphila	Increase	Collado et al. [89]	increase of 0.03–0.51 copies/mL
4. Lactobacillus 5. Bacteroidetes 6. Proteobacteria 7. Actinobacteria 8. Corynebacterium 9. Brevundimonas	Increase Increase Decrease Increase Increase Increase	Cabrera-Rubio et al. [114] Lemay-Nedjelski et al. [115] Lemay-Nedjelski et al. [115] Lemay-Nedjelski et al. [115] Lemay-Nedjelski et al. [115] Lemay-Nedjelski et al. [115]	ratio: 0.52; 95% incidence rate ratio: 2.56 incidence rate ratio: 0.62 incidence rate ratio: 2.02 incidence rate ratio: 4.98 incidence rate ratio: 8.72
EVs
1.miR-128-3p	Decrease	Kupsco et al. [116]	fold changes of 0.91
2.miR-130a-3p	Decrease	Kupsco et al. [116]	fold changes of 0.93
3.miR-574-3p	Decrease	Kupsco et al. [116]	fold changes of 0.092
4.miR-6881-5p	Decrease	Kupsco et al. [116]	fold changes of 0.94
5.miR-148a	Decrease	Shah et al. [117], Xi et al. [118]	lower by 30%, r/F—−0.291/−0.356
6.miR-30b	Decrease	Shah et al. [117]	lower by 42%
7.let-7a	Decrease	Xi et al. [118]	r /F—−0.425/−0.202
8.miRNA-378	Decrease	Xi et al. [118]	r/F—−0.223/−0.335
9.miR-575	Decrease	Cho et al. [119]	log2Fold change = −1.983
10.miR-630	Decrease	Cho et al. [119]	log2Fold change = −1.447