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. 2023 Dec 12;12(24):4141. doi: 10.3390/plants12244141

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© 2023 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Plant EV biogenesis and release. (A) Possible EV biogenesis pathways in plants. Plant EVs might be derived from PEN1-positive organelles (1); exocyst-positive organelles (EXPOs) (2); multivesicular body (MVB) endosomes (3); ER-derived vesicles (4); vacuole fusion with the plasma membrane (5); autophagosome-mediated secretion (6); or blebbing of the cell membrane (7). (B) Passage of EVs through the plant cell wall might involve cell wall hydrolases. Cell wall as well as EV plasticity could further facilitate their cell wall crossing. (C) Schematic representation of biomarker-associated EVs. (D) Plant EV composition. TGN/EE: trans-Golgi network/early endosome; ER: endoplasmic reticulum; EXPO: exocyst-positive organelle; MVB: multivesicular body; ILV: intraluminal vesicle; AF: autophagosome. ? means putative route.