Table 1.

Protein, small RNA (sRNA), lipid, and metabolite cargo characterisation in different plant-derived EVs.

Plant Species	Source/Tissue	Biocargo/Putative Function	References
Protein analysis
Olea europaea	Germination medium/pollen grains	Proteins associated with metabolism and signalling, cell wall expansion, defence, and stress response	[38]
Actinidia chinensis Planch.	Germination medium/ pollen grains	Proteins involved in metabolic processes, transport, signalling, and stress response	[41]
Arabidopsis thaliana	Apoplastic washing fluid/leaves	Proteins involved in metabolic processes, cell wall organization, and biotic and abiotic stress responses	[25,37]
Arabidopsis thaliana	Apoplastic washing fluid/leaves	Proteins involved in stress response, RNA binding proteins involved in sRNA selective loading and stabilisation in EVs	[67]
Helianthus annus	Extracellular fluid/seedlings	Proteins involved in cell wall modification, defence, vesicular trafficking events	[77]
Nicotiana benthamiana	Apoplastic washing fluid/leaves	Proteins involved in cell communication, metabolic processes, transport, and stress response	[18]
Solanum lycopersicum	Collection medium/root	Proteins involved in perception and transduction of plant–pathogen interactions and defence-related proteins	[21]
Salvia dominica	Culture media/hairy root	Cytoskeletal components, cell wall organisation, chaperon proteins	[42]
Helianthus annus	Extracellular fluid/seeds	Small GTPase as regulators of vesicular trafficking events	[34]
Craterostigma plantagineum Hochst.	Cell suspension culture media	Proteins involved in cell wall remodelling, defence response	[23]
RNA analysis
Arabidopsis thaliana	Apoplastic washing fluid/leaves	Diverse species of sRNA (tiny RNA, miRNA, and siRNA	[78]
Arabidopsis thaliana	Apoplastic washing fluid/leaves	Diverse sRNA species and (long noncoding RNAs, sRNA, and circular RNA) putatively involved in host-induced gene silencing	[33]
Arabidopsis thaliana	Apoplastic washing fluid/ homogenised callus	miRNAs, ESCRT complexes, PEN1 and TET8	[48]
Lipid and Metabolite analysis
Helianthus annus	Extracellular fluids of imbibed sunflower seeds	Detection of phosphatidic acid (PA), phosphatidylinisitol (PI), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), and phosphatidylcholine (PC)	[34,79]
Arabidopsis thaliana	Apoplastic washing fluid/leaves	Presence of sphingolipids, phospholipids, and sterols	[27]
Nicotiana tabacum, C. plantagineum Hochst.	Apoplastic fluid/suspension culture media	Enrichment of lipophilic compounds	[23]
Aster yomena	Cell suspension culture medium	Seventeen metabolites	[46]