. 2023 Jul 21;45(1):44–62. doi: 10.1093/epirev/mxad009

Table 1.

Characteristics of the included articles for analysis, N = 32.

First author, year^{reference no.}	Level of analysis	Study design	Study population				Racism/racial discrimination	Social connectedness	Health outcome	Statistical approach (effect modification, or mediation)	Did social connectedness significantly affect associations between racial discrimination and health?	Theory
First author, year^{reference no.}	Level of analysis	Study design	Race and/or ethnicity ^a ^, ^b	Mean (SD) age, years	Age range, years	%	Racism/racial discrimination	Social connectedness	Health outcome			Theory
Beach, 2019³⁴	Individual level	Cross-sectional	Black/African American		24–29 years		Self-reported experiences of racial discriminatory events	Perceived relationship, warmth, and support	Proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines (an index of IL-7, IL-8, IL-10, IL-13, MIP1B, and TNF-α)	Effect modification	Yes	Broad evolutionary explanatory framework
Bergeron, 2020⁵⁵	Individual level	Cross-sectional	Black, White, Latino, Asian/Pacific Islander, Other		18–24 24–44 45–64 ≥ 65	11 43 30 16	Self-reported lifetime interpersonal discrimination based on race, ethnicity, or color in 9 domains	Frequency of social contacts	HrQOL-4	Effect modification	Yes	None
Busby, 2020⁵⁶	Individual level	Cross-sectional	White, Black, Asian, Hispanic, Other	N/A	N/A		Everyday discrimination in the past 12 months	Social connectedness	Depressed mood and anhedonia using the PHQ-2	Effect modification	No	Minority stress theory
Garcini, 2020⁴⁹	Individual level	Cross-sectional	Latinx	46 (15.0)	N/A		Perceived discrimination subscale	Social support	Depression using the CESD-R	Effect modification	Yes	Social support as buffer theory
Goosby, 2012⁵⁷	Individual level	Cross-sectional	Non-Hispanic White, Non-Hispanic Black	16.1 (11.4)	N/A		Perceived discrimination	School connectedness; loneliness; parental support	Self-rated general health	Effect modification	Yes	Integrative and biopsychosocial theory
Jang, 2021⁴⁵	Individual level	Cross-sectional	Black/African American	73.4 (8.0)	N/A		Self-report of ever been discriminated against or treated unfairly because of their race or ethnicity	Social connectedness to one’s ethnic community	Psychological distress using the 6-item Kessler Psychological Distress Scale	Effect modification	Yes	None
Kim, 2014⁴⁶	Individual level	Cross-sectional	Korean	30.3 (12.2)	N/A		The racial discrimination experience measure	Perceived social support	Depression using the CESD	Effect modification	Yes	Empowerment theory
Lee, 2015⁵⁸	Multilevel	Cross-sectional	White, Black	45.2 (6.6)	N/A		Individual racial prejudice	Neighborhood social capital	Death	Mediation	Yes	Social capital theory
Liao, 2016³⁶	Multilevel	Cross-sectional	Black/African American	30.23 (12.0)	N/A		Racial microaggressions against Black individuals	Social connectedness to one’s ethnic community; social connectedness to mainstream society	Anxiety using the short form of the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale	Effect modification	Yes	Social Identity theory and diathesis of stress theory
Lorenzo-Blanco, 2019⁵⁰	Individual level	Longitudinal	Latinx	14.51 (0.9)	N/A		Perceived discrimination	Social neighborhood cohesion; informal social control; adolescents’ perceived neighborhood characteristics	Parent and adolescent depressive symptoms using the CESD	Effect modification	Yes	Social stress theory
Majeno, 2018⁵⁹	Individual level	Cross-sectional	Latino, European American, Asian, Other	16 (0.7)	N/A		Everyday discrimination in the past 12 months	Loneliness	Sleep outcomes (duration, variability, global PSQI score, PSQI quality, PSQI efficiency, PSQI disturbances)	Mediation	Yes	None
Maleku, 2021⁶⁰	Multilevel	Cross-sectional	Asian, Latino, White, Other	27.8 (5.5)	N/A		Everyday discrimination in the past 12 months	Loneliness	Depressive Symptoms using the PHQ-9 scale	Mediation	Yes	None
Mama, 2016³⁷	Multilevel	Cross-sectional	Black/African American	45.2 (12.9)	N/A		Experiences of a situation based on their race, ethnicity, or skin color	Perceived social support	Mental health using the Medical Outcomes Study’s 12-item Short-Form Survey–12, version 2	Mediation	Yes	Social Ecological Theory
Marshall, 2012³⁸	Multilevel	Cross-sectional	Black/African American, Caribbean Black	66.5 (10.9)	N/A		Everyday discrimination in the past 12 months	Social support; social connectedness	Depressive symptoms using a 12-item version of the original 20-item CESD	Effect modification	No	Stress Process Theory
Nair, 2013⁵¹	Multilevel	Cross-sectional	Mexican or Mexican American	35.9	N/A		Self-reported perceptions of discrimination from teachers and peers against their ethnic group or directed at themselves	Family cohesion	Adolescents internalizing and externalizing symptoms using the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children	Effect modification	Yes	Strain Theory
Negi, 2013⁶⁵	Individual	Cross-sectional	Latino	37 (10.7)	N/A		Self-reported perceptions of stress associated with discrimination and stigma	Social isolation	Psychological distress using the 6-item Kessler Psychological Distress Scale	Mediation and qualitative	Yes	Minority stress theory
Nelson, 2021³⁹	Individual level	Cross-sectional	Black/African American	34.2 (11.4)	N/A		Measure the stress associated with experiencing racist and sexists events during the past year and throughout the lifetime	Loneliness	Depressive symptoms using the CESD-R	Mediation	Yes	None
Nguyen, 2018⁴⁰	Individual level	Cross-sectional	Black/African American, Caribbean Black	N/A	18–34 35–54 55	N/A	Everyday discrimination in the past 12 months	Church-based emotional support	Psychological distress using the 6-item Kessler Psychological Distress Scale	Effect modification	Yes	None
Priest, 2020⁴¹	Individual level	Cross-sectional	African American	51.6 (11.9)	N/A		Experiences of racial discrimination	Family support	Disease activity using an index of chronic conditions and prescription medications	Mediation	Yes	Biobehavioral family model
Rodriguez, 2016⁵²	Individual level	Cross-sectional	Hispanic	61.7 (8.7)	N/A		Lifetime exposures to ethnic discrimination within a social or interpersonal context	Social support	Sleep outcomes (nocturnal blood pressure dipping)	Effect modification	No	None
Rollock, 2016⁴⁷	Individual-level	Cross-sectional	Asian American	42	N/A		Experiences of perceived inequity in social interactions Experiences of racial discrimination	Family cohesion; neighborhood social cohesion; social network support; spousal support	Psychological distress using the 10-item Kessler Psychological Distress Scale	Effect modification	No	Discrimination and psychosocial stress theory
Roth, 2022⁵³	Individual level	Cross-sectional	Puerto Rican, Cuban, Mexican, Other	40 (15.6)	N/A		Discrimination based on day-to-day life experiences or attributed to race/ethnicity differences	Neighborhood social cohesion	Depressive symptoms; anxiety disorders; substance use disorders using the DSM-IV module of a modified version of the World Mental Health Composite International Diagnostic Interview	Latent profile analysis	Yes	Social ccological theory and acculturation theory
Saasa, 2021⁴²	Individual level	Cross-sectional	South African, East African, Central African, West African, North African	33.9 (9.2)	N/A		Frequency of experiences of everyday mistreatment	Loneliness	Mental health symptoms using the 4-item PHQ	Effect modification	Yes	Biopsychosocial theory
Scheuermann, 2020⁶¹	Multilevel	Longitudinal	Black/African American, White	N/A	<40 >40	N/A	Frequency of experiences of everyday mistreatment	Neighborhood social cohesion	Psychological distress using the GAD 7item scale	Effect modification	No	Environmental Affordances model
Sheikh, 2022⁶²	Individual-level	Cross-sectional	South Asian, Middle Eastern, North Africa, Other	29 (4.8)	N/A		Severity of perceived discrimination, Everyday Discrimination Scale, revised	Social connectedness	Trauma and/or PTSD using the DSM-5 Primary Care PTSD Screen	Effect modification	Yes	Adapted model of acculturation
Singh, 2015⁶⁶	Individual level	Cross-sectional	Asian American	40.6 male, 41.2 female	N/A		Acculturative stress based on Asian descent	Family and friend social support	Psychological distress using the 10-item Kessler Psychological Distress Scale	Effect modification	Yes	Acculturative stress, and stress oping theory
Steers, 2019⁴³	Individual level	Cross-sectional	African American	49.0 (11.5)	N/A		Perceived discrimination experienced on a day-to-day basis	Social support	Psychological distress using the Global Severity Index from the 53-item Brief Symptom Inventory	Effect modification	Yes	Social support as a buffer theory
Torres, 2022⁵⁴	Multilevel	Cross-sectional	Puerto Rican, Central and South American, Other	43.57 (15.1)	N/A		Lifetime exposures to racial/ethnic discrimination within a social or interpersonal context	Neighborhood social cohesion	Depressive symptoms using a brief version of the CESD	Moderated-mediation	Yes	Discrimination and psychosocial stress theory
Walton, 2012⁶⁴	Multileve	Cross-sectional	Asian American	40.97 (14.7)	N/A		Frequency of routine experiences of unfair treatment	Neighborhood social cohesion	Self-rated physical health	Mediation	No	Resurgent ethnicity perspective
Wei, 2012⁴⁸	Individual level	Cross-sectional	Chinese, Taiwanese, Hong Kong	24.9 (4.5)	N/A		Perceived racial discrimination in the context of being an international student in the United States	Social connectedness to one’s ethnic community; social connectedness to mainstream society	PTSD using the 6-item PTSD Checklist	Effect modification	Yes	Acculturation theory
Wong, 2014⁴⁴	Individual level	Cross-sectional	Black/African American men, multiethnicity	23.6 (6.0)	N/A		Lifetime experiences of minority stress	Social network connectedness, emotional support; instrumental support	Psychological distress using a brief version of the CESD	Effect modification	Yes	Minority stress theory
Yang, 2018⁶³	Individual level	Cross-sectional	White, Black/African American, Hispanic, Other	52 (16.2)	N/A		Perceived racial discrimination	Neighbor’s willingness to help; sense of belonging; sense of neighborhood trust; neighborhood improvement	Self-rated stress	Mediation	Yes	Stress coping theory

Abbreviations: CESD, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression; CESD-R, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression, Revised; DSM, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; GAD, Generalized Anxiety Disorder; HRQoL4, Health-Related Quality of Life–4; IL, interleukin; MIP1B, macrophage inflammatory protein-1β; N/A, not reported, not available based on the study design, or unclear in the study; PHQ, Patient Health Questionnaire; PSQI, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index; PTSD, post-traumatic stress disorder; TNF, tumor necrosis factor.

^a For race/ethnic composition column, where only 1 race was reported, the sample was 100%. In cells where 2 or more races were reported and no percentages; these data were was unknown or not reported in the study. Race/ethnic terms may vary based on what authors reported in their study (eg, Latinx or Hispanic or Latino, or non-Hispanic Black or Black/African American). For the age column, some studies did not report the SD of the mean age or percentage. For the social connectedness column, multiple items are reported if authors use more than 1 measure either together or as part of a composite.

^b We report, where possible, terms used by the study authors; hence, there are differences in reporting (eg, between Black, and non-Hispanic Black, and African Americans). Some authors used Latino, others used Latinx, others use Hispanic).