Table 1.
Some promising agents for drug repurposing in cancer and their proposed pathways[20]
| Drug | General classification | Types of cancer | Mechanism of action |
|---|---|---|---|
| Losartan | Angiotensin II receptor antagonists | Ovarian cancer | Decrease in cell proliferation and growth, apoptosis |
| Verapamil | Calcium channel blockers | Colorectal cancer | Inhibition of P gp |
| Carvedilol | Alpha- and Beta-blockers | Glioblastoma/breast cancer | Inhibits proliferation and migration of cells/induces mitochondrial damage |
| Atenolol | Beta-blocker | Lung cancer/gastric cancer | It acts by impeding apoptosis, migration, proliferation, and inflammatory cell responses in cancer therapy |
| Propranolol | Beta-blocker | Hemangioma | Interfering with SOX18 transcriptional activity to prevent cancer cell angiogenesis and migration |
| Simvastatin | HMG Co-A reductase inhibitors | Glioblastoma | Inhibits proliferation of cells and migration/apoptosis by enhancing caspase-3 function/downregulation of P13K/AKT pathway |
| Digoxin | Digitalis glycosides | Prostate cancer | Prohibition of apoptosis, Na/K+ATPase, suppression of HIF-1α accretion, reducing ERK pathway |
| Atorvastatin | HMG Co-A reductase inhibitors | Glioblastoma | Inhibition of migration, proliferation, downregulation of MMP through the P38 MAPK pathway |
| Pitavastatin | HMG Co-A reductase inhibitors | Glioblastoma | Suppression of tumor cell MDR-1 protein and cell proliferation/inhibition of mevalonate pathway |
| Lovastatin | HMG Co-A reductase inhibitors | Glioblastoma | Inhibition of MAPK pathway and cell proliferation and induces apoptosis/increase in G0/G1 cell arrest |
| Sildenafil | Phosphodiesterase inhibitors | Glioblastoma | CGMP pathway increases the permeability of BBTB |
| Chlorpromazine | Antipsychotics | Glioblastoma | Inhibition of the MTOR/AKT pathway |
| Fluphenazine | First-generation antipsychotics | Triple-negative breast cancer | Causing G0/G1 cell cycle/apoptosis |
| Imipramine | Tricyclic antidepressants | Small-cell lung cancer | Prompting higher level of cell death and autophagy |
| Metformin | Biguanides | Ovarian cancer/lung cancer | Apoptosis, autophagy causes G1 cell arrest |
| Pioglitazone | Thiazolidinediones | Glioblastoma/lung cancer | Inhibition of the WNT pathway/β catenin pathway and apoptosis |
| Niclosamide | Anthelmintics | Leukemia/hepatocellular carcinoma/lung cancer | Inhibition of tumor cell proliferation/reversing of cancer gene expression |
| Chloroquine | Antimalarial and amebicides | Pancreatic cancer | Impedes the activity of MMP-2, invasion, and cell proliferation |
| Artemisinin | Antimalarial | Breast cancer/hepatocarcinoma | STAT3/caspase-dependent apoptosis |
| Itraconazole | Antifungal (triazoles) | Gastric cancer/prostate cancer/glioblastoma | Inhibiting the AKT-mTOR pathway, hedgehog pathway, angiogenesis |
| Ketoconazole | Antifungal (imidazole) | Colorectal cancer/hepatocellular carcinoma | Decreasing glycolytic metabolism |
| Ciprofloxacin | Antibiotics (fluoroquinolones) | Colon cancer/liver cancer | Inhibiting the ABCB1 efflux function to reverse MDR |
| Ritonavir | Protease inhibitors | Melanoma/ovarian cancer | Obstructing the AKT/mTOR pathway/expressing G1phase |
| Nelfinavir | Protease inhibitors | Melanoma/rectal cancer | Suppressing PAX3 and MITF expression |
| Aspirin | Salicylates | Colon cancer | Obstructing COX enzymes or downregulating the WNT or β-catenin pathway |
| Ibuprofen | NSAIDs | Adenocarcinoma | Decrease in angiogenesis, apoptosis, and cell proliferation, inhibition of COX enzyme |
| Benazepril | ACE inhibitors | Esophageal carcinoma | Inhibition of cell growth |
| Benztropine | Anticholinergics | Pancreatic cancer | Acts on STAT 3, SLC6A3/DAT pathway |
| Irbesartan | Angiotensin II receptor antagonists | Hepatic cancer | Causes targeting of the P13AK/AKT signaling |
| Amodiaquine | Quinoline | Melanoma | Autophagy and apoptosis |
| Clofoctol | Bacteriostatic antibiotic | Prostate cancer | Activation of ER stress and branches of the UPR pathway, which leads to inhibition of cancer cell growth |
| Risperidone | Atypical antipsychotics | Adenocarcinoma | Reducing proliferation |
| Daraprim | Antiparasitic | Triple-negative breast cancer | STAT 3 mechanism inhibitor |
| Paroxetine | SSRIs | Breast cancer | P38 MAP kinase-dependent ROS production and calcium ion-triggered apoptosis |
| Albendazole | Anthelmintics | Lung cancer | Inhibition of VEGF and HIF-1 α-dependent glycolysis process |
| Sertraline | SSRIs | Prostate cancer | Deregulation of redox balance by the activation of autophagy and apoptosis |
MMP=Matrix metalloproteinase, SSRIs=Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, VEGF=Vascular endothelial growth factor, HIF-1 α=Hypoxia-inducible factor 1α, STAT=Signal transducer and activator of transcription protein, COX=Cyclooxygenase, ER=Endoplasmic reticulum, UPR=Unfolded protein response