Table 1.
Baseline covariates of new intakes at opioid treatment programs, by COVID-19 exposure (N = 821).
| Pre-COVID (n = 386) |
Post-COVID (n = 435) |
|
|---|---|---|
| No. (%)/Mean (SD) | No. (%)/Mean (SD) | |
| Age | 39.6 (11.7) | 38.8 (11.1) |
| Age group ≥ 40 | 165 (42.8) | 171 (39.3) |
| Gender | ||
| Male | 236 (61.1) | 256 (58.9) |
| Female | 150 (38.9) | 179 (41.1) |
| Race | ||
| White | 272 (70.5) | 336 (77.2) |
| Black | 50 (12.9) | 35 (8.1) |
| Asian | 2 (0.5) | 1 (0.2) |
| Native Hawaiian, Pacific Islander | 3 (0.8) | 2 (0.5) |
| American Indian Alaskan Native | 10 (2.6) | 12 (2.8) |
| Other (including multi-race) | 29 (7.5) | 35 (8.0) |
| Missing | 20 (5.2) | 14 (3.2) |
| Ethnicity | ||
| Hispanic | 35 (9.1) | 48 (11.0) |
| Non-Hispanic | 273 (70.7) | 312 (71.7) |
| Missing | 78 (20.2) | 75 (17.2) |
| Health insurance | ||
| None | 59 (15.3) | 59 (13.6) |
| Grant Funded | 36 (9.3) | 33 (7.6) |
| Medicaid | 249 (64.5) | 290 (66.7) |
| Medicare | 14 (3.6) | 22 (5.1) |
| Medicaid and Medicare | 10 (2.6) | 8 (1.8) |
| Commercial insurance | 10 (2.6) | 17 (3.9) |
| Other (including missing) | 8 (2.1) | 6 (1.4) |
| Marital status | ||
| Never married | 137 (35.5) | 160 (36.8) |
| Married | 95 (24.6) | 89 (20.5) |
| Formerly married | 64 (16.6) | 77 (17.7) |
| Single (Unknown marital status) | 87 (22.5) | 98 (22.5) |
| Missing | 3 (0.8) | 11 (2.5) |
| Highest level of education attained | ||
| <8 years | 14 (3.6) | 25 (5.7) |
| Some high school | 94 (24.4) | 95 (21.8) |
| High school graduate | 141 (36.5) | 176 (40.5) |
| Some college | 83 (21.5) | 97 (22.3) |
| College graduate | 39 (10.1) | 30 (6.9) |
| Missing | 15 (3.9) | 12 (2.8) |
| Housing status | ||
| Homeless | 61 (15.8) | 62 (14.2) |
| Unstable | 80 (20.7) | 94 (21.6) |
| Secure housing | 224 (58.0) | 256 (58.9) |
| Other | 12 (3.1) | 17 (3.9) |
| Missing | 9 (2.3) | 6 (1.4) |
| Employment status | ||
| Full-time | 72 (18.7) | 83 (19.1) |
| Part-time | 39 (10.1) | 35 (8.1) |
| Retired | 6 (1.6) | 3 (0.7) |
| Disabled | 46 (11.9) | 45 (10.3) |
| Student | 1 (0.3) | 1 (0.2) |
| Unemployed | 139 (36.0) | 162 (37.2) |
| Out of label force | 76 (19.7) | 99 (22.8) |
| Missing | 7 (1.8) | 7 (1.6) |
| Arrest within 30 days | ||
| Yes | 13 (3.4) | 14 (3.2) |
| No | 223 (57.8) | 245 (56.3) |
| Missing | 150 (38.9) | 176 (40.5) |
| Criminal justice involvement | ||
| Yes | 265 (68.6) | 297 (68.3) |
| No | 89 (23.1) | 95 (21.8) |
| Missing | 32 (8.3) | 43 (9.9) |
| HIV | ||
| Yes | 13 (3.4) | 7 (1.6) |
| No | 193 (50.0) | 222 (51.0) |
| Missing | 180 (46.6) | 206 (47.4) |
| Hepatitis C | ||
| Yes | 145 (37.6) | 155 (35.6) |
| No | 163 (42.3) | 199 (45.8) |
| Onset age of opioid use | 24.7 (9.9) | 23.6 (8.7) |
| Onset age of opioid use group | ||
| <18 | 114 (29.5) | 135 (31.0) |
| 18–25 | 126 (32.6) | 150 (34.5) |
| ≥18 | 130 (33.9) | 132 (30.3) |
| Missing | 16 (4.1) | 18 (4.1) |
| Primary route for opioid use | ||
| Oral | 29 (7.5) | 21 (4.8) |
| Smoking | 8 (2.1) | 12 (2.8) |
| Intranasal | 119 (30.8) | 127 (29.2) |
| Injection | 212 (54.9) | 262 (60.2) |
| Drug use disordera | ||
| Alcohol | 33 (8.6) | 38 (8.7) |
| Opioid | 384 (99.5) | 432 (99.3) |
| Cannabis | 52 (13.5) | 48 (11.0) |
| Cocaine | 49 (12.7) | 70 (16.1) |
| Stimulant | 58 (15.0) | 82 (18.9) |
| Psychostimulant NOS | 99 (25.7) | 143 (32.9) |
| PCP | 2 (0.5) | 1 (0.2) |
| Benzodiazepine | 15 (3.9) | 15 (3.5) |
| Nicotine | 172 (44.6) | 165 (37.9) |
| Others | 9 (2.3) | 7 (1.6) |
| Psychiatric Historya | ||
| Anxiety | 144 (37.3) | 170 (39.1) |
| PTSD | 70 (18.1) | 75 (17.2) |
| Depression | 149 (38.6) | 158 (36.3) |
| Psychotic | 9 (2.3) | 9 (2.1) |
| Bipolar Behavior | 56 (14.5) | 51 (11.7) |
| Behavior, Conduct Disorderb | 49 (12.7) | 57 (13.1) |
| Borderline Personality Disorder | 7 (1.8) | 8 (1.8) |
| Other comorbidity | 33 (8.6)c | 18 (4.1) |
a
Missing cases for drug use disorder (n = 1–13), psychiatric history (n = 8–13) were not shown at Table 1.
b
Including oppositional defiant, Intermittent explosive.
c
Differences in two groups at p < 0.01.