Table 2.

Different techniques, their range and mechanism of detection of miRNAs in different autoimmune diseases.

microRNA	Optical technique	Linear dynamic range	Disease	Mechanism	References
let‐7a	Fluorescence	10 fM–2 pM	RA	Helicase (RecQE) ‐assisted hybridization chain reaction on graphene oxide (GO) platform	[174]
miRNA‐155	Absorbance	100 aM–100 fM	RA	DNA probe bound to citrate‐capped Au nanoparticles; target miRNA adsorbed on polyethylenimine‐capped AuNP surface	[175]
miRNA‐15a	Surface plasmon resonance (SPR)	5 fM–0.5 nM	RA	Isolated Au islands on innovative chip installed on SPRi imager bordered by hydrophobic fluoropolymer‐ CYTOP	[176]
miRNA‐21, miRNA‐155	Surface plasmon resonance (SPR)	10 aM–10 pM	RA	SPR chip surface coated with antimonene nanosheets; amplification due to interaction with AuNR‐ssDNA	[177]
miRNA‐155	Surface enhanced raman spectroscopy (SERS)	1 fM–10 nM	RA	SERS enhanced DSN amplification in DNA microcapsule using TB@CaCO3 blend	[178]
miRNA‐145	Fluorescence spectrophotometry	N/A	MS	Hybridization chain reaction‐based formation of AgNCs in DNA (highly fluorescent)/use of oligonucleotide hairpin probes	[179]
miRNA‐ 23a, miRNA‐126, miRNA‐422, miRNA‐223	SPRi	N/A	MS	Enzyme‐free SPR‐based nanoenhancer composed of neutravidin‐coated gold nanospheres (nGNSs); miRNA recognition through use of antibody against DNA/RNA hybrids	[180]
miRNA‐17	LSPR	N/A	MS	Immobilized AuNPs on aminopropyl triethoxysilane (APTES)‐treated glass slides; amplification based on HCR and hairpin surface‐tethered probes	[181]
miRNA‐155	Colorimetric‐based	100 aM–100 fM	MS	DNA probe bound to citrate‐capped Au nanoparticles; target miRNA adsorbed on polyethylenimine‐capped AuNP surface	[175]
miRNA‐155	cyclic voltammetry (CS), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)	10 aM–1 μM	MS	Bioreceptor attached to single‐walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) and polypyrrole (PPY) nanocomposite on graphite sheet platform followed by hybridization with target miRNA	[54]
miRNA‐146a	LSPR	‐	SLE	Detection of extracellular vesicles using plasmonic nanoparticle‐embedded polydopamine platform	[182]
miRNA‐21	photoelectrochemical	0.01 fM–1 μM	SLE	ZnIn2S4 QDs heteroconjugated with TiO2 signal probe; enzyme‐free target cycle amplification using tripod DNA walker	[183]
miRNA‐126	electrochemical	1 fM–10 nM	SLE	Target miRNA immobilized on CoNi‐MOF metallic framework using 2,2ʹ‐bipyridine‐5,5ʹ‐dicarboxylic acid as ligand	[184]
miRNA‐451	(LC–MS) bioanalytical method	0.5–200 ng/mL	SLE	Biotinylated capture strands and NEB hydrophilic streptavidin magnetic beads	[185]
miRNA‐223	Fluorescencespectrophotometry	0.05–0.6 μM	IBD	cDNA probe (P1–4) paired against target miRNA to quench fluorescent DNA/AgNC moiety; based on fluorescence turn‐on strategy	[186]
miRNA‐23a and miRNA‐223	Fluorescencespectrophotometry	0.05–0.8 μM	IBD	Multicolored fluorescent DNA‐stabilized AgNCs/two split DNA probes	[187]
miRNA‐1246, miRNA‐375, miRNA‐21, and miRNA‐221	Electrochemical biosensor	10 fM–100 pM	IBD	Exo‐miRNA analysis using DNA‐tetrahedrons‐assisted catalytic hairpin assembly (MDTs‐CHA)	[188]
miRNA‐375	Label‐free electrochemical biosensor	10 and 30 fM	IBD	Oligonucleotide capture probe immobilized on Au electrode, followed by hybridization	[189]
miRNA‐122	Electrochemical DNA sensor	5 pM–10 nM	IBD	Toehold‐promoted strand displacement reaction in presence of miRNA + Exo (III) followed by enzymatic cyclic amplification reactions	[190]

Abbreviations: IBD, inflammatory bowel disorder; MS, multiple sclerosis; SLE, systemic lupus erythematosus.