Table 3.

Biomarker Discovery in Diabetic Retinopathy

Prediction	Detective Method	Metabolic Biomarkers	Ref.
Proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR)	LC-MS	Pyruvate, lactate, proline, allantoin, creatine	[83]
DR	LC-MS	Total DMA, tryptophan, and kynurenine	[84]
PDR	LC-MS	Inosine, hypoxanthine, urate, allantoate	[85]
DR	GC‐MSM, LC‐MSM, and LC‐MSL	2-piperidone and 12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12-HETE)	[86]
PDR	LC-MS	Fumaric acid, uridine, acetic acid, and cytidine	[87]
DR	LC-MS	Arginine, citrulline, glutamic γ-semialdehyde, and dehydroxycarnitine	[88]
PDR	LC-MS	Arginine and Carnitine	[88]
DR	1 H-NMR	Lactate, succinate, 2-hydroxybutyrate, asparagine, dimethylamine, histidine, threonine, and glutamine	[89]
DR	GC-MS	Threonic acid, d-2,3-Dihydroxypropanoic acid, l-Lactic acid, isocitric acid, fructose 6-phosphate, l-threonine, ornithine, l-glutamine, pyroglutamic acid, pyruvic acid, and l-alanine	[90]
DR	GC-MS, LC-MS	Plasma glutamine, glutamic acid, and their ratio	[91]
DR	LC-MS	FAS, LPCs, LPC-Os, LPEs, LPE-ps, Cers, CerG1s, etc	[92]