Table 5.

Results from fixed effect regressions using all starling measurements, PC1 as a fixed effect to control for body size, and time*sex*location as interaction terms.

All Data − fixed effect regressions − (measurement) ~ (PC1) + (TIME)*(LOCATION)*(SEX)
Source	Increase/Decrease over time	Value	Standard error	DF	t	Pr >|t|	Lower bound (95%)	Upper bound (95%)
BEAK LENGTH
Intercept		24.65	0.16	1190.70	156.94	< 0.0001	24.34	24.95
PC1		0.48	0.06	1193.00	7.57	< 0.0001	0.35	0.60
Native females	Not significant	0.00	0.00	1193.00	− 1.92	0.055	− 0.01	0.00
NZ females	Increase	0.02	0.00	1193.00	4.87	< 0.0001	0.01	0.02
US females	Increase	0.01	0.00	1193.00	7.58	< 0.0001	0.01	0.01
Native males	Not significant	0.00	0.00	1193.00	1.41	0.16	0.00	0.01
NZ Males	Increase	0.02	0.00	1193.00	5.50	< 0.0001	0.01	0.02
US males	Increase	0.01	0.00	1193.00	13.40	< 0.0001	0.01	0.01
TARSUS LENGTH
Intercept		28.93	0.12	1191.20	233.67	< 0.0001	28.68	29.17
PC1		0.96	0.05	1193.00	19.30	< 0.0001	0.86	1.05
Native females	Increase	0.00	0.00	1193.00	2.16	0.03	0.00	0.01
NZ females	Increase	0.03	0.00	1193.00	10.13	< 0.0001	0.02	0.03
US females	Decrease	− 0.01	0.00	1193.00	− 7.45	< 0.0001	− 0.01	0.00
Native males	Increase	0.01	0.00	1193.00	4.39	< 0.0001	0.00	0.01
NZ males	Increase	0.03	0.00	1193.00	11.84	< 0.0001	0.02	0.03
US males	Decrease	− 0.01	0.00	1193.00	− 9.39	< 0.0001	− 0.01	− 0.01
DISTAL BEAK LENGTH
Intercept		17.24	0.09	1190.60	190.90	< 0.0001	17.07	17.42
PC1		1.44	0.04	1193.00	39.93	< 0.0001	1.37	1.52
Native females	Decrease	0.00	0.00	1193.00	− 3.04	0.002	− 0.01	0.00
NZ females	Increase	0.04	0.00	1193.00	21.94	< 0.0001	0.04	0.04
US females	Increase	0.00	0.00	1193.00	7.35	< 0.0001	0.00	0.01
Native males	Decrease	0.00	0.00	1193.00	− 3.44	0.001	− 0.01	0.00
NZ males	Increase	0.04	0.00	1193.00	23.50	< 0.0001	0.04	0.04
US males	Increase	0.01	0.00	1193.00	10.83	< 0.0001	0.00	0.01
PROXIMAL BEAK LENGTH
Intercept		7.40	0.10	1190.90	73.28	< 0.0001	7.20	7.59
PC1		− 0.96	0.04	1193.00	− 23.81	< 0.0001	− 1.04	− 0.88
Native females	Not significant	0.00	0.00	1193.00	− 0.24	0.81	0.00	0.00
NZ females	Decrease	− 0.03	0.00	1193.00	− 14.47	< 0.0001	− 0.03	− 0.03
US females	Increase	0.00	0.00	1193.00	5.28	< 0.0001	0.00	0.00
Native males	Increase	0.01	0.00	1193.00	5.30	< 0.0001	0.00	0.01
NZ males	Decrease	− 0.03	0.00	1193.00	− 14.31	< 0.0001	− 0.03	− 0.02
US males	Increase	0.01	0.00	1193.00	11.21	< 0.0001	0.01	0.01
WING LENGTH
Intercept		122.70	0.29	1188.30	417.24	< 0.0001	122.12	123.27
PC1		2.68	0.12	1193.00	22.76	< 0.0001	2.45	2.91
Native females	Not significant	0.00	0.00	1193.00	0.38	0.70	− 0.01	0.01
NZ females	Increase	0.09	0.01	1193.00	14.67	< 0.0001	0.08	0.10
US females	Not significant	0.00	0.00	1193.00	− 1.16	0.25	− 0.01	0.00
Native males	Increase	0.02	0.00	1193.00	4.91	< 0.0001	0.01	0.02
NZ males	Increase	0.09	0.01	1193.00	17.18	< 0.0001	0.08	0.10
US males	Increase	0.00	0.00	1193.00	2.28	0.02	0.00	0.01