Table 1.
Sociodemographic characteristics and environmental exposure in Luxembourg Parkinson’s study baseline dataset.
| PD mean (SD) or YES/NO (%) | PSP mean (SD) or YES/NO (%) | Controls mean (SD) or YES/NO (%) | PD vs. control OR [95% CI] | PSP vs. control OR [95% CI] | PD vs. PSP OR [95% CI] | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Individuals per group | N = 720 | N = 51 | N = 811 | - | - | - |
| Sex (male) | 479/241 (66.5%) | 32/19 (62.7%) | 423/388 (52.2%) | 1.82 [1.48;2.24] * | 1.54 [0.86;2.82] | 1.19 [0.61;2.24] |
| Age at assessment (years) | 67.3 (10.9) | 70.4 (7.54) | 59.7 (12.1) | 1.06 [1.05;1.07] * | 1.11 [1.07;1.15] * | 0.97 [0.94;1.00] |
| Family history of parkinsonism | 192/527 (26.7%) | 9/40 (18.4%) | 276/533 (34.1%) | 0.70 [0.56;0.88] | 0.44 [0.20;0.88] | 1.60 [0.79;3.59] |
| Family history of dementia | 189/524 (26.5%) | 12/37 (24.5%) | 275/530 (34.2%) | 0.70 [0.56;0.87] | 0.63 [0.31;1.20] | 1.10 [0.58;2.26] |
| Years of education completed | 12.9 (4.08) | 11.6 (3.98) | 14.3 (3.84) | 0.91 [0.89;0.94] * | 0.82 [0.76;0.89] * | 1.08 [1.01;1.16] |
| Total languages spoken | 2.83 (1.06) | 2.78 (0.86) | 3.50 (0.81) | 0.47 [0.42;0.53] * | 0.47 [0.36;0.61] * | 1.04 [0.79;1.36] |
| Regular intake of caffeinated beverages | 631/55 (92.0%) | 46/2 (95.8%) | 768/34 (95.8%) | 0.51 [0.32;0.79] | 0.95 [0.28;6.47] | 0.53 [0.08;1.80] |
| History or presence of smoking | 325/358 (47.6%) | 21/27 (43.8%) | 383/419 (47.8%) | 0.99 [0.81;1.22] | 0.85 [0.47;1.53] | 1.17 [0.65;2.13] |
| Life-long alcohol abstinence | 117/547 (17.6%) | 14/31 (31.1%) | 101/682 (12.9%) | 1.44 [1.08;1.93] | 3.06 [1.52;5.87] | 0.47 [0.25;0.94] |
| Regular intake of alcohol | 435/238 (64.6%) | 31/16 (66.0%) | 541/248 (68.6%) | 0.84 [0.67;1.04] | 0.88 [0.48;1.69] | 0.95 [0.49;1.75] |
| Regular intake of aspirin | 122/537 (18.2%) | 8/36 (18.2%) | 83/711 (10.5%) | 1.91 [1.41;2.58] * | 1.93 [0.80;4.11] | 0.99 [0.47;2.35] |
| Regular intake of ibuprofen-based non-aspirin medications | 89/567 (13.6%) | 7/36 (16.3%) | 89/692 (11.4%) | 1.22 [0.89;1.67] | 1.54 [0.61;3.38] | 0.79 [0.36;2.02] |
| Regular intake of other anti-inflammatory medication | 112/547 (17.0%) | 9/34 (20.9%) | 83/701 (10.6%) | 1.73 [1.27;2.35] * | 2.26 [0.98;4.71] | 0.76 [0.37;1.75] |
| History of calcium channel blocker intake | 315/262 (47.2%) | 22/22 (50.0%) | 320/471 (40.5%) | 1.32 [1.07;1.62] | 1.47 [0.80;2.72] | 0.90 [0.48;1.66] |
| History of exposure to pesticides | 417/269 (60.8%) | 28/20 (58.3%) | 547/255 (68.2%) | 0.72 [0.58;0.89] | 0.65 [0.36;1.20] | 1.11 [0.60;2.01] |
| Exposure to glues or adhesives | 68/595 (10.3%) | 3/42 (6.67%) | 61/725 (7.76%) | 1.36 [0.94;1.96] | 0.89 [0.20;2.55] | 1.53 [0.54;6.67] |
| Exposure to solvents or degreasers | 98/562 (14.8%) | 7/38 (15.6%) | 94/687 (12.0%) | 1.27 [0.94;1.73] | 1.37 [0.54;2.99] | 0.93 [0.43;2.35] |
| Exposure to welded, brazed or flame cut metal | 71/606 (10.5%) | 6/41 (12.8%) | 45/753 (5.64%) | 1.96 [1.33;2.91] * | 2.49 [0.90;5.82] | 0.78 [0.34;2.14] |
| Exposure to regular solder activity | 53/625 (7.82%) | 1/44 (2.22%) | 32/767 (4.01%) | 2.03 [1.30;3.22] | 0.62 [0.03;2.97] | 3.27 [0.70;77.4] |
| Exposure to metal dust or metal fumes | 116/549 (17.4%) | 13/34 (27.7%) | 85/708 (10.7%) | 1.76 [1.30;2.38] * | 3.20 [1.57;6.19] | 0.55 [0.29;1.11] |
| Exposure to metal not otherwise categorized | 137/509 (21.2%) | 9/36 (20.0%) | 128/644 (16.6%) | 1.35 [1.04;1.77] | 1.27 [0.56;2.61] | 1.06 [0.52;2.42] |
Intergroup comparisons using Student’s t-test (for normal distributed continuous variables), Mann Whitney U-test (for non-normal distributed continuous variables) and chi-square test or Fisher’s exact test for categorical variables, respectively. Statistically significant is indicated by an asterisk after Bonferroni correction for multiple testing. PD (Parkinson’s disease); PSP (progressive supranuclear palsy); OR (odds ratio); CI (95% confidence interval). Variables were defined in Methods or in Supplementary material.