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. 2024 Jan 3;14:330. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-51025-z

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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The pathway of neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction may play a significant role in the short-term consequences of early parental deprivation. (a) A volcano plot was generated to visualize the results of the microarray analysis comparing human hand-reared young marmosets to parent-reared young marmosets. In the plot, 425 genes that exhibited upregulation in the human hand-reared marmosets were shown in red color (fold change > 2.0, P < 0.05). On the other hand, 188 genes that displayed downregulation were shown in blue color (fold change < −2.0, P < 0.05). (b) Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) of the neuroactive-ligand receptor interaction pathway enriched in human hand-reared marmosets compared to parent-reared young marmosets. (c) Heat map was visualized neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction pathway genes. HRY hand-reared young marmoset, PRY parent-reared young marmoset, red higher expression, blue lower expression.