Figure 3.

Three main categories of β cell failure in T2D mechanism. The reduction of β cell numbers, β cell dysfunction and loss of β cell identity are the three primary modules for β cell failure mechanism in T2D patients. In the β cell dysfunction module, chronic metabolic stress including ER stress and oxidative stress could lead to the failure of pancreatic β cells. In the loss of β cell identity module, the cells with color of white represent compromised β cells.