Table 3.
Potential prognostic biomarkers of pancreatic cancer
| Biomarker | Site | Proposed Mechanisms | Effects | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| K. pneumoniae | Biliary fluid | Gemcitabine metabolism and resistance plus other possible yet undiscovered effects | If negative, improved progression-free survival | [103] |
| Quinolone-resistant K. pneumoniae | Biliary fluid | Quinolones induce long-lasting alterations in the microbiome leading to changes in tumor biology | Shorter progression-free survival | [103] |
| Campylobacter, Citrobacter and Leptotrichia | Gallbladder | NA | Increased in cholangiocarcinoma | [104] |
| Enterobacter, Hungatella, Mycolicibacterium, Phyllobacterium and Sphingomonas | Gallbladder | NA | Significant difference in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, between stages with and without lymph node metastasis | [104] |
| Enterococcus, Eggerthella, Klebsiella, Corynebacterium, Moraxella, Hungatella, Paracoccus, Dermacoccus, Citrobacter, Lawsonella and Pseudoxanthomonas | Gallbladder | NA | Higher amounts lead to worse prognoses | [104] |
| Streptococcus, Escherichia, Veillonella and Dialister | Gallbladders | NA | Patients with higher amounts have better prognoses | [104] |
| Fusobacterium | Pancreas | Lead to inflammation, reactive oxygen species, and epigenetic changes | Worse prognoses | [105] |
| F. prausnitzii, Alistipes, and Enterobacteriaceae species | Gut | Survival analysis revealed associations of favorable prognosis with higher abundances of short-chain fatty acid producers in the gut | Abundance in gut microbiome indicator of lower mortality | [36] |
| Capnocytophaga | Oral cavity | NA | Abundance in oral microbiome indicator of lower mortality | [36] |
| R. torques | Gut | linked with inflammatory bowel disease | Poorer prognosis | [36] |
| S. vestibularis, and N. bacilliformis | Oral Cavity | NA | Poorer prognosis | [36] |
| Akkermansia | Gut | Adaptive immune system activation | increased proportion in the gut microbiota of NAT responders | [106] |
| Enterobacteriaceae | Gut | Gemcitabine metabolization | increased proportion in the gut microbiota of NAT non-responders | [106] |
| Coprococcus catus, colesterdium hathewayi, genera Alistipes and Anaerostipes | Gut | A positive correlation exists between the abundance pf Alistipes and saturated long-chain fatty acids that are decreased in unresectable PDAC compared to resectable PDAC | positively correlated with survival time | [109] |
| Alistipes, Anaerostipes, Faecalibacterium and Parvimonas | Gut | Abundance of Faecalibacterium was reduced in unresectable PDAC and positively correlated with phosphatidylcholine, an indicator of less serious physiological state; | reduction in unresectable PDAC patients | [109] |
| Pseudonocardia, Cloacibacterium, Mucispirillum, and Anaerotruncus | Gut | Anaerotruncus is associated with LysoPE that is decreased in unresectable PDAC | Increase in unresectable PDAC patients | [109] |
| Hepatitis B virus | Liver | Inflammation and down regulation of anti-cancer cytokines | Higher occurrence of simultaneous liver metastasis in PDAC | [110] |
| Gammaproteobacteria | Intratumoral | Metabolizes and deactivates gemcitabine | Metabolize and deactivate gemcitabine leading to drug resistance | [37] |