Fig. 5. Mechanism of nanobodies in tumor targeting.

The mechanisms by which nanobodies target the tumor microenvironment include: Blocking the VEGF/VEGFR pathway for suppressing angiogenesis, Modulation of M2 macrophages by targeting the MMR, Blocking immune checkpoint molecules by nanobodies that enhance the anti-tumor T cell effector activity, Targeting the Tumor Environment Cytokines and Chemokines as critical modulators of immune cell states of activation, Activation of immune cells such as NK cells, γδ T cells, and CD8⁺ T cells, Directing CAR-T Cell. VEGF Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor, MMR Mannose Macrophage Receptor, TNF-α Tumor Necrosis Factor-α, IFN-γ Interferon- γ, IL-2 Interleukin 2, NK Cell Natural Killer Cell, VEGFR VEGF Receptor, CAR-T Cell Chimeric Antigen Receptor T Cell.