Table 1.
Characterization of the intratumoural microbiota in various cancers
| Cancer types | Microbiome compositions | Quantitative dynamics | Function |
|---|---|---|---|
| Lung cancer | Genus Modestobacter36 | Increase | — |
|
Genus Propionibacterium, genus Enterobacteriaceae36 |
Dcrease | — | |
| Genus Blastomyces11 | Increase | — | |
|
Class Agaricomycetes, genus Aspergillus12 |
Increase | — | |
| Genus Acidovorax37 | Increase | Related to tumours with high TP53 mutation; | |
|
Genus Klebsiella, genus Anaerococcus37 |
Increase | — | |
|
Genus Acinetobacter, genus Brevundimonas, genus Propionibacterium38 |
Increase | — | |
| Phylum Cyanobacteria39 | Increase | — | |
|
Genus Veillonella, genus Megasphaera40 |
Increase | As the diagnostic biomarker of tumour; | |
|
Family Coriobacteriaceae, genus Pasteurella201 |
— | Related to the number of CD8 + T cells and M2 macrophages; | |
| Species Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae188 | Increase | Released IL-17C and recruited the neutrophils; | |
| Liver cancer | Hepatitis B virus43,130,179,203 | Increase |
Integrated viral genome into the host chromosome; induced m6A modification of RNA Recruited Treg cells; |
| Hepatitis C virus43,204 | Increase | Recruited Treg cells; | |
| Species Helicobacter pylori48–50 | Increase | — | |
| Order Gammaproteobacteria53 | Increase | — | |
|
Family Streptococcaceae, genus Lactococcus53 |
Increase | As the hallmark groups of cirrhosis hepatocellular carcinoma; | |
| Family Enterobacteriaceae54 | Increase | — | |
|
Family Caulobacteraceae, family Rickettsiaceae54 |
Decrease | — | |
| Species Paraburkholderia fungorum55 | Decrease | Related to antitumor activity; | |
| Colorectal cancer | Species Enterotoxigenic Bacteroides fragilis56,140,186 | Increase |
Secreted carcinogenic toxins; initiated pro-inflammatory signalling cascade; |
| Genus Fusobacterium57–59,182 | Increase | Promoted the polarization of M2-like macrophages; | |
|
Genus Lactococcus, genus Bacteroides, genus Prevotella, genus Streptococcus59 |
Increase | — | |
|
Genus Pseudomonas, genus Escherichia-Shigella59 |
Decrease | — | |
| Species Fusobacterium nucleatum60,141,166–168,174,190,199,210,211,242,248 | Increase |
Related to advanced-stage tumour; induced histone modification; upregulated DNA methyltransferases; inhibited autophagic process; activated β-catenin signalling; aggregated tumour-infiltrating myeloid cells; activated TIGIT and CEACAM1 receptors expressed on immune cells; induced EMT; upregulated ICAM1 and promoted the adhesion of cancer cells to endothelial cells; |
|
|
Genus Bifidobacterium, genus Romboutsia62 |
Increase | Related to left-sided colon cancers; | |
|
Genus Haemophilus, genus Veillonella62 |
Increase | Related to right-sided colon cancers; | |
|
Phylum Ascomycota Class Malasseziomycetes65 |
Increase | — | |
|
Class Saccharomycetes, class Pneumocystidomycetes65 |
Dcrease | — | |
| Species Escherichia coli140,249 | Increase |
Secreted carcinogenic toxins; related to metastasis; |
|
| Species Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli144 | Increase | Disrupted mechanisms of DNA mismatch repair; | |
| Species Hungatella hathewayi168 | — | Upregulated DNA methyltransferases; | |
| Genus Akkermansia194 | — | Increased IL-17 production and B cell infiltration; | |
| Genus Candida11 | Increase | Involved in the downregulation of genes mediating cellular adhesion; | |
| Gastric cancer | Species Helicobacter pylori68,69,76,145,161,162,212–214 | Increase |
Related to early-stage of tumours; disrupted DNA mismatch repair mechanisms; inducted abnormal DNA methylation; activated CEACAM1 on immune cells; upregulated PD-L1 expression; |
|
Genus Prevotella, genus Streptococcus, genus Veillonella, genus Haemophilus genus Neisseria73 |
Increase | — | |
| Genus Helicobacter73,227 | Decrease | Metabolic regulation; | |
| Genus Lactobacillus74,227 | Increase |
Related to tumour progression; metabolic regulation; |
|
|
Phylum Nitrospirae, family Lachnospiraceae, genus Escherichia-Shigella, species Burkholderia fungorum74 |
Increase | Related to tumour progression; | |
|
Genus Oceanobacter, genus Methylobacterium, genus Syntrophomonas75 |
Increase | — | |
|
Species Propionibacterium acnes, species Prevotella copri76 |
Increase | Related to early-stage of tumours; | |
|
Phylum TM7, genus Porphyromonas, genus Neisseria species Streptococcus sinensis77 |
Decrease | Related to benign gastric disease; | |
|
Family Lachnospiraceae, species Lactobacillus coleohominis77 |
Increase | Related to malignant gastric disease; | |
| Epstein-Barr virus70–72 | Increase | Related to DNA hypermethylation; | |
|
Order Clostridium, family Comamonadaceae, genus Moryella, genus Vibro, genus Paludibacter, genus Agrobacterium30 |
Increase | Monitor the risk of gastric cancer development; | |
|
Species Kytococcus sedentarius, species Actinomyces oris163 |
Increase | Inducted abnormal DNA methylation; | |
| Breast cancer |
Genus Pseudomonas, genus Proteus81 |
Increase | — |
| Species Methylobacterium radiotolerans82,83 | Increase | — | |
| Species Sphingomonas yanoikuyae82 | Decrease | — | |
| Genus Methylobacterium84 | Decrease | — | |
| Genus Cladosporium12 | Increase | — | |
| Genus Lactobacillus85,225 | Increase |
Metabolic regulation; enhanced the resistance of tumour cells to flow shear stress; |
|
|
Genus Streptococcus, genus Staphylococcus85 |
Increase | Enhanced the resistance of tumour cells to flow shear stress; | |
| Family Streptococcaceae88 | Increase | — | |
| Genus Bosea88 | Increase | Related to tumour progression; | |
|
Species Escherichia coli, species Staphylococcus epidermis143 |
Increase | Caused double-stranded DNA breaks; | |
|
Genus Fusobacterium, genus Atopobium, genus Hydrogenophaga, genus Gluconacetobacter225 |
Increase | Metabolic regulation; | |
| Species Enterotoxigenic Bacteroides fragilis246 | Increase | Enhanced stemness potential and metastatic progression; | |
| Species Fusobacterium nucleatum33,252 | Increase | Related to metastasis; | |
| Pancreatic cancer | Phylum Proteobacteria91 | Increase | — |
| Species Helicobacter pylori92,93 | Increase | Related to activation of molecular pathways for tumour growth and progression; | |
| Genus Pseudomonas91,94 | Increase | Related to carcinogenesis; | |
| Genus Elizabethkingia91 | Increase | — | |
|
Genus Acinetobacter, genus Sphingopyxis94 |
Increase | Related to carcinogenesis; | |
| Genus Malassezia95 | Increase | — | |
| Oral cancer | Genus Fusobacterium101,112 | Increase | — |
| Species Fusobacterium nucleatum142,229 | Increase |
Caused double-stranded DNA breaks; Promoted GLUT1 upregulation and lactic acid accumulation; |
|
| Species Porphyromonas gingivalis102–105,154,155,244 | Increase |
Related to the formation of DNA adducts or the inhibition of DNA repair enzymes; Related to the expression of EMT-related transcription factors; |
|
| Genus Prevotella106 | Icrease | — | |
| Species Prevotella intermedia107 | Increase | Related to carcinogenesis; | |
| Species Treponema denticola108,109 | Increase | — | |
| Species Streptococcus anginosus110,111,155 | Increase | Related to the formation of DNA adducts or the inhibition of DNA repair enzymes; | |
| Genus Streptococcus112 | Decrease | — | |
|
Species Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Campylobacter sp. Oral taxon 44113 |
Increase | — | |
| Human papillomavirus98 | Increase | — | |
| Epstein-Barr virus99 | Increase | — | |
| Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1100 | Increase | — | |
|
Species Candida albicans, species Candida etchellsii, species Hannaella luteola-like114 |
Increase | — | |
| Head-and-neck squamous cell carcinomas | Genus Parvimonas116 | Increase | — |
| Genus Actinomyces116 | Decrease | — | |
| Human papillomavirus types 16117,134 | Increase | Inhibited the cGas-STING pathway; | |
| Oesophageal cancer | Species Campylobacter conisus189 | Increase | Upregulated PRRs and aggregated IFI16 inflammasome; |
| Nasopharyngeal carcinoma |
Genus Corynebacterium, genus Staphylococcus28 |
Increase | — |
| Epstein-Barr virus119,217 | Increase | Downregulated IDO expression; | |
| Ovarian carcinoma |
Phylum Aquificae, phylum Planctomycetes120 |
Increase | — |
| Phylum Crenarchaeota120 | Decrease | — | |
| Human papillomavirus types 16, 18, and 45121 | Related to advanced-stage tumours; | ||
| Endometrial cancer |
Genus Bacteroides, genus Faecalibacterium122 |
Increase | — |
|
Genus Staphylococcus, genus Blautia, genus Parabacteroides122 |
Decrease | — | |
| Cervical cancer |
Genus Gardnerella, genus Prevotella, genus Streptococcus, genus Atopobium226 |
Increase | Metabolic regulation; |
| Human papillomavirus131,205,208,209 | Increase |
Integrated viral genome into the host chromosome; recruited Treg cells; inhibited cytotoxic T and NK cell activation; upregulated PD-L1 expression; |
|
| Prostatic cancer | Species Cutibacterium acnes123,124 | Increase | — |
| Species Staphylococcus aureus202 | Increase | Recruited Treg cells; | |
| Bladder cancer |
Species Escherichia coli, species Butyrate-producing bacteria SM4/1, a species of Oscillatoria243 |
Increase | Related to the expression of EMT-related genes; |
| Pituitary neuroendocrine tumour |
Order Clostridiales, family Fusobacteriaceae, family Tissierellaceae, family Aerococcaceae, family Corynebacteriaceae, family S24-7, F16125 |
Increase | Related to different clinical phenotypes of tumour; |
| Burkitt’s lymphoma | Epstein-Barr virus126 | Increase | — |
| Hodgkin’s lymphoma | Epstein-Barr virus126 | Increase | — |
| NK cell and T cell lymphomas | Epstein-Barr virus126 | Increase | — |
| Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1139 | Increase | Inhibited DNA repair pathway. | |
| Lymphocytic leukaemia | Human endogenous retroviruses118 | Increase | — |