Table 1.

Comparison between different genetic biomarkers.

Genetic Biomarker	Cancer Type	Function/Use	Key Genes/Elements	Ref.
Mutations and Gene Alterations	Melanoma	Targeted therapy selection	BRAF V600E mutation	[117]
	NSCLC (Lung)	Sensitivity to EGFR inhibitors	EGFR mutations (e.g., exon 19 deletions, L858R)	[118]
	Colorectal	Affecting treatment response	KRAS mutations (30–40% cases)	[119]
	Breast/Ovarian	Guiding therapy selection	BRCA1/BRCA2 mutations	[70]
	Breast/Gastric	Indicating aggressive behavior	HER2 amplification/overexpression	[71]
	Gliomas	Diagnostic and prognostic markers	IDH mutations	[120]
Gene Expression Profiles	Breast	Recurrence prediction and treatment guidance	Oncotype DX (16 genes)	[121]
	Breast	Distant metastasis risk and treatment guidance	MammaPrint (18 genes)	[122]
	Breast	Subtype classification and hormone therapy	Prosigna (PAM50—50 genes)	[75]
	Prostate	Recurrence prediction after surgery	Decipher (Genomic Risk Score)	[123]
DNA	Various	Identification of oncogene alterations	p53, KRAS, APC, RAS, BRCA1/2, etc.	[124]
	Various	Detection of mismatch-repair gene mutations	Mismatch-repair gene mutations	[125]
	Various	Monitoring of circulating DNA	Tumor DNA in circulation	[126]
RNA	Various	Identification of miRNA markers	Various microRNAs in different cancers	[127]
	Lung	Detection of circular RNA (circRNA) markers	Hsa circ 0013958 in lung adenocarcinoma	[128]
Epigenetics	Various	Detection of DNA methylation in promoter regions	RASSF1A, p16, BRCA1, NKX2-6, SPAG6, PER1, ITIH5, etc.	[129]
	Various	Role of histone acetylation	Histone acetylation levels	[130]