Table 1.
Air pollution and racial disparities in pregnancy outcomes in the USA
| Reference | Study design | Study years | Country | Study population/sample size | Total black | Total white | Total Hispanic | Method used to capture exposure | Outcome measure | Adverse pregnancy outcome Total |
Adverse outcome Blacks |
Adverse outcome Whites |
Adverse outcome Hispanics |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Benmarhnia T et al | Retrospective cohort | 2005–2010 | California USA | 1,066,783 | 175,297 | 891,486 | Not specified | Measurement of PM2.5 and NO2 by EPA | PTB, SGA | Prevalence PTB=10.9%, SGA=2.2% | PTB=15%; SGA=18.3% | PTB=11.3%; SGA=9.9% | Not specified |
| Gray SC et al | Retrospective cohort | 2001–2006 | North Carolina USA | 457,642 | 22.8% | 62.4% | 14.8% | Bayesian measurement of PM2.5 and O3 | LBW, SGA, PTB | LBW=7.3%; SGA=10.2%; PTB=9.8% | OR LBW=2.13(2.05,2.22); PTB=1.46(1.42,1.50) | Reference | LBW=0.99 (0.93, 1.05); PTB=0.78 (0.75, 0.81) |
| Wallace ME et al | Retrospective cohort study | 2000–2008 | Multi national | 223,375 | 50,255 | 110,541 | 38,811 | CMAQ model | PROM | PROM=7% | PROM=7.6% | PROM=6.9% | PROM=6.4% |
| Hao H, et al | Retrospective cohort | 2002–2006 | Georgia USA | 511,658 | 161,583 | 329,152 | Not Specified |
CMAQ model CO, SO2, O3, NO2, PM2.5 |
PTB | PTB=9.3% | PTB=20,283 | PTB=25,514 | Not specified |
| Woodruff TJ et al | Retrospective cohort | 1998–1999 | California USA | 4,098,740 | 15.0% | 61.2% | 18.8% | U.S. EPA ambient air quality measurement PM10, O3, CO, NO2, SO2 | SGA, PTB | SGA=9.0%, PTB=9.9% |
AOR for SGA=2.0 OR for PTB-1.9 |
Reference | Not specified |
| Kingsley SL et al | Retrospective cohort | 2002–2012 | Rhode Island USA | 61,640 | 4,706 | 36,510 | Not specified | Land-use regression and satellite remote sensing. PM2.5, BC | PTB | PTB=478 | PTB=2,853 | Not specified | |
| DeFranco E et al | Retrospective cohort | 2006–2010 | Ohio USA | 351,036 | 46.6% | 44.8% | 5.8% | U.S. EPA local measurement of PM2.5 | Stillbirths | Stillbirths=0.5% | Stillbirth=8.6 per 1000 | Stillbirth=3.7 per 1000 | Stillbirth=5.7 per 1000 |
| Nobles CJ et al | Retrospective cohort | 2002–2010 | Maryland USA | 109,126 | 216 | 43,055 | 5,328 | CMAQ model, SO2, NO2, PM10 | FGR | FGR=1.5% (825) | FGR=8 | FGR=708 | FGR=88 |
| Le HQ et al | Retrospective cohort | 1990–2001 | Michigan USA | 164,905 | 93,078 | 68,164 | Not specified | Ambient air monitors, SO2, O3CO, NO2, , PM10 | PTB, SGA |
nSGA=13,754 nPTB=24,954 |
SGA=69.1%, PTB=71.1% | SGA=28.6%, PTB=27.1% | |
| Miranda ML et al | Retrospective cohort | 2004–2008 | North Carolina USA | 468,517 | 23.3% | 60.3% | 16.4% | Proximity to major road | LBW, PTB, SGA | LBW=6.8%, PTB=10.5%, 10.2% | LBW=11.6%, PTB=14.6%, SGA=16.1% | LBW=5.5%, PTB=9.1%, SGA=8.1% |
LBW=5.0% PTB=9.9% SGA=9.3% |
| Laurent O et al | Retrospective cohort | 1997–2006 | California USA | 70,000 | 6,261 | 30,548 | 23,678 |
Mixed method NOx, CO, O3, PM |
LBW | LBW=3.19% | LBW=1.23% | LBW=1.59% | |
| Bell ML et al | Retrospective cohort | 1999–2002 | California USA | 358,504 | 10.7% | 83.4% | Not specified | US EPA measurements on NO2, SO2, PM, CO | LBW | LBW=4.01% | LBW=−97.8 (−102.9 to −92.7) | Reference | Not specified |
| Rich DQ et al | Retrospective cohort | 1999–2003 | New Jersey USA | 350,107 | 38,978 | 84,747 | 54,473 |
US EPA measurements PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO |
SGA | SGA=8%, VSGA=2% | SGA=24% | SGA=46% | SGA=30% |
| Geer LA et al | Retrospective cohort | 1998–2004 | Texas USA | 1,548,904 | 10.6% | 34.7% | 50.7% | US EPA measurements PM, SO2 NO2, CO | LBW | LBW=2.8% | LBW=−168.1 (−170 to −165) | Reference | LBW=−64.1 (−66.0 to −62.3) |
| Ghosh JK et al | Case control | 2003 | CaliforniaUSA | 1,761 | 7% | 10.9% | 73.6% | Air quality monitoring data | LBW | LBW=3.85 (1.54,9.79) | Reference | LBW=2.75 (1.32,5.72) | |
| Kahr MK et al | Retrospective chohort | 2011–2014 | Texas USA | 9004 | 10.7% | 30.5% | 69.5% | People commuting to work | PTB | PTB=10% | PTB=11% | PTB=32% | PTB=68% |