Figure 3.

Electroactive materials and electrodes for generating exogenous electric fields for promoting macrophage polarization. (A) Synthesis method of electrically active GDFE hydrogel with high conductivity for promoting M2 polarization. Steps 1–3 correspond to physical, photo, and ionic cross-linking steps, respectively. Reproduced with permission from ref (63). Copyright 2021 Wiley-VCH. (B) Three-dimensional printing of triply cross-linked gelatin–polypyrrole hydrogel for promoting M2 polarization for osteogenesis. Reproduced with permission from ref (61). Copyright 2023 Elsevier. (C) Implantable bioelectrodes coated with heparin-doped polypyrrole (PPy/Hep) for altering the macrophage toward anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype. (i) Recruitment of macrophages, (ii) M1 suppression, (iii) decreasing of scarring, and (iv) signaling process. Reproduced from ref (76). Copyright 2022 American Chemical Society.